22. Juni 2017

Allgemeine Informationen

In einem bereits aus dem Jahr 1988 stammenden Eintrag zu den Bangasch in der von der Columbia University in New York betriebenen Encyclopædia Iranica werden die Ursprünge des Stammes detailliert anhand historischer Quellen beschrieben. In der Gegenwart würden die Bangasch in die paschtunische genealogische Megastruktur eingebettet, obwohl sie nicht mit den Paschtunen verwandt seien. Die Einbettung, die nicht als Abstammung formuliert werde, gehe möglicherweise auf eine militärische Allianz mit den Katak im 15. Jahrhundert zurück. Die Bangasch würden auch deshalb unter den Paschtunen hervorstechen, weil sie mehrheitlich Schiiten seien und eine Minderheit von ihnen Sunniten. Die Bangasch dürften ursprünglich laut Überlieferung aus der Region Gardez (Afghanistan) stammen, später hätten sie den Paywar-Pass überquert und seien nach und nach in das obere Kurrambecken eingewandert und hätten das ganze Gebiet südlich von Safidkuh erobert, das im 16. Jahrhundert Bezirk Bangasch genannt worden sei. In der Gegenwart würden sie hauptsächlich entlang der Hauptroute zwischen Afghanistan und Indien siedeln, die durch die Täler Miranzay und Kohat verlaufe. Obwohl sie im 18. Jahrhundert den Großteil des oberen Kurramtales an die Turi abtreten mussten, hätten die Bangasch noch einige isolierte Dörfer dort, wobei Schalozan nahe der afghanischen Grenze der westlichste Punkt sei, den sie noch besiedelten. Die Bangasch seien von Halbnomaden zu sesshaften Bauern geworden:

„The tribe is a combination of lineages from various origins. Evidence of this comes from both the lineage names (e.g., Laḡmānī and Jamšēdī) and the mythical descent of the tribe from a man named Esmāʿīl, who moved from Persia to the Solaymān mountains but whose eleventh-generation ancestor was the famous Arab general Ḵāled b. Walīd and whose wife was a Formolī (a local Iranian ethnic group; Š.-M. Khan [1894], pp. 311f.). At this point, nothing—apart from distant kinship through the same Arab ancestor—relates the Bangaṧ to the Pashtun genealogical megastructure, wherein they are nowadays incorporated through the Karlāni branch, which comprises several Solaymāni tribes that have been genealogically adopted and more or less culturally pashtunized. This incorporation, which is never clearly formulated in terms of filiation or even of adoption, may have originated in a military alliance between the Bangaṧ and Ḵaṭak (q.v.) in the 9th/15th century.

[…] The Bangaṧ also stand out among the Pashtun because the majority are Shiʿite and a minority Sunni. It has often been said (e.g., Caroe [1958], pp. 202ff.) that Shiʿism among the Pashtun—in fact only among the Bangaṧ, the Tūrī (q.v.), and a small part of the Ōrakzī (q.v.)—is but the modern avatar of religious dissent going back to the Rōšānī heresy (q.v.). As regards the Bangaṧ, Bellew ([1891], p. 105) has suggested that the tribe, given the name of its putative ancestor, might have formed around the preaching of Ismaʿili missionaries.

[…] The ethnogenesis of the Bangaṧ, therefore, seems both to be religious and to be located in the Gardīz region during the Ghaznavid period. The myth has transposed these origins in terms of Esmāʿīl’s marriage with a woman from Formol (= Orgūn), a district just south of Gardīz. Later on the Bangaṧ, who were then expelled from their mountain den by the Ḡelzī during Tīmūr’s invasions, crossed the Paywār pass and progressively moved into the upper Korram basin on the eastern slopes of the Solaymān mountains. There they met the hostility of the Ōrakzī who were eventually, owing to the Bangaṧ’s tactical alliance with the Ḵaṭak who were moving into the same area, pushed back into the Safīdkūh (Spīnḡar) foothills. The Bangaṧ, could then occupy the whole area that, just south of the Safīdkūh, was called the Bangaṧ district in the 10th/16th century (Beveridge [1922], p. 220), whence the name. Even today, they are mainly settled along the major route between Afghanistan and India that passes through the Mīrānzay and Kōhāt valleys. Though forced to cede most of the upper Korram valley to the Tūrī in the 12th/18th century, the Bangaṧ still have a few isolated villages there, in particular Šalozān which, near the Afghanistan border, is the westernmost point that they still inhabit.

[…] The number of Bangaṧ in the Northwest Frontier Province was estimated at 7,925 men in the 1901 census (Ridgway). Although they apparently used to lead a seminomadic life (Gazetteer, [1883-4], p. 31), they are now settled farmers (Dichter, [1967], p. 125). In the late 13th/19th century, there were still indications that wēš (the periodic redistribution of land) was practiced (Gazetteer, pp. 85ff.).” (Encyclopædia Iranica, 15. Dezember 1988)

Das australische Außenministerium (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, DFAT) schreibt in einem Bericht über Schiiten in Pakistan vom Dezember 2013 hingegen, dass die Bangasch hauptsächlich Sunniten seien. Schiitische Bangasch würden vermutlich in Kohat, Hangu und Orakzai leben. Es sei DFAT nicht möglich, die Größe dieser Gruppe zu bestimmen, laut glaubwürdigen Quellen seien die schiitischen Bangasch weniger sichtbar und ihre schiitische Identität sei schwer zu unterscheiden. DFAT würde im Allgemeinen einschätzen, dass die Situation in den Stammesgebieten unter Bundesverwaltung (Federally Administered Tribal Areas, FATA) volatil bleibe und ein hohes Maß an genereller Gewalt bestehe, das Schiiten betreffen könne. In der Vergangenheit habe es ein hohes Niveau kommunaler Gewalt zwischen Sunniten und Schiiten gegeben. Friedensvereinbarungen hätten Konflikte reduziert, militante Gruppen würden aber sehr aktiv in der Region bleiben und hätten häufig rivalisierende Gruppen wie schiitische Turi und Bangasch angegriffen. Die paschtunische schiitische Bevölkerung sei vor allem in Hangu, Kohat, Peschawar und D.I Khan konzentriert, viele Schiiten in diesen Gebieten seien Bangasch und Turi, die von Kurram oder anderen Teilen der FATA hergezogen seien:

„4.25 Alongside Turi Shias, there are also some Bangash Shias in FATA. Bangash are mainly Sunni. Shia Bangash are believed to be located in Kohat, Hangu and Orakzai (in FATA and the settled areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). DFAT is unable to ascertain the size of this community but credible sources have told DFAT that Bangash Shias are less visible and their Shia identities are difficult to distinguish.” (DFAT, 18. Dezember 2013, S. 13)

„4.26 Overall, DFAT assesses that the situation in FATA remains very volatile and there is a high degree of generalised violence that can affect Shias. In the past there have been high levels of communal level violence between Sunnis and Shias. Peace agreements at various periods have reduced conflicts between the tribal and sectarian groups. However, militant sectarian outfits remain very active in the region and have attacked rival tribal/sectarian groups including Turi and Bangash Shias at a high rate of frequency.” (DFAT, 18. Dezember 2013, S. 13)

„4.29 The Pashtun Shia population is largely concentrated in Hangu, Kohat, Peshawar and D.I Khan. Many Shias living in these areas are Bangash and Turi—who have relocated from Kurram and other parts of FATA.” (DFAT, 18. Dezember 2013, S. 13)

Eliszabeth Hulme vom Program for Culture & Conflict Studies der Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, Kalifornien, veröffentlichte im Juli 2016 ein kurzes Arbeitspapier zu den Bangasch. Darin heißt es, die Bangasch bewohnten hauptsächlich die Bezirke Kohat und Hangu sowie Teile der Kurram Agency, als größere Orte werden Darra, Tanda Dam, Darsamand, Hangu, Kai, Kohat, Obbatal, Tirah, Togha und Tora genannt:

„Primary Location

The Bangash occupy the primarily the Kohat and Hangu districts as well as portions of the Kurram Agency.

Major Locations

Darra [...], Tanda Dam […], Darsamand, Hangu, Kai, Kohat, Obbatal, Tirah, Togha, Tora” (Hulme, 12. Juli 2016)

Unter den Bangasch gebe es sowohl Sunniten als auch Schiiten. Die Schiiten seien rund um Hangu und Upper Kurram konzentriert. Die schiitischen Bangasch der Kachai und Marai seien traditionell in Fehde mit den sunnitischen Bangasch von Rabai Khel und Shekhan. Die Bangasch betreiben eher Ackerbau als Viehzucht. Die wichtigsten Clans seien die Baizai, Miranzai und Samalzai:

„The Bangash are both Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Shias are concentrated around Hangu and the Upper Kurram. […] Shia Bangash of the Kachai, Marai are traditionally at feud with the Sunni Bangash of Rabai Khel and Shekhan. […] The Bangash are predominantly an agricultural people, rather than pastoral. Most likely of Arab descent, they became thoroughly merged with the Ghurghust Pashtuns and settled into the Kurram valley in the fifteenth century and with their current locations established in the eighteenth century. The primary clans are the Baizai, Miranzai, and Samalzai.“ (Hulme, 12. Juli 2016a)

Das Papier von Hulme enthält auch eine Karte vom Siedlungsgebiet der Bangasch:

[Bild entfernt]

(Hulme, 12. Juli 2016a)

Eine Genealogie der Bangasch wurde von Hulme unter folgendem Link veröffentlicht:

·      Hulme, Eliszabeth: Bangash Tribe, 12. Juli 2016b (veröffentlicht vom Program for Culture & Conflict Studies der Naval Postgraduate School)
http://www.nps.edu/documents/105988371/107571254/Bangash+Tribe.pdf/35971ee9-8747-49c4-86b9-eba0e65ea9da

 

Auf der offiziellen Webseite der Provinz Khyber Pakhtunkhwa wird erwähnt, dass Paschtu die Hauptsprache in der Provinz sei, wobei die härtere nordöstliche Dialektvariante Pachtu in Bajaur, Swat and Buner, unter anderem von den Bangasch, gesprochen werde:

„The dominant language of the Province, Pashto, belongs to the Irani branch of the Aryan family of languages. It has two main dialects: Pakhto and Pashto. Pakhto is the hard or north-eastern version spoken in Bajaur, Swat and Buner, by the Yusufzai, Bangash, Orakzai, Afridi and Momand tribes. Pashto is the soft or south-western version spoken by the Khattaks, Wazirs, Marwats and other tribes in the south.” (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ohne Datum)

Auf der offiziellen Webseite der Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) werden die zwei Hauptstämme der Kurram Agency als Turi und Bangasch genannt (FATA, ohne Datum).

Aktuelle Lage

In einem Artikel von BBC News vom Jänner 2017 werden die Turi und die Bangasch als zwei Stämme der Kurram Agency bezeichnet. Sie würden über viele leichte und schwere Maschinengewehre, Granaten und sogar einige Luftabwehrgeschütze verfügen, die sie entlang der Grenze der Kurram Agency lagern würden. Sie seien aus zwei Gründen nicht gewillt, sich von diesen Waffen zu trennen. Zum einen sei Kurram der einzige der sieben halbautonomen Stammesbezirke, der von Schiiten bewohnt werde. Der Bezirk sei auf drei Seiten von afghanischem Staatsgebiet umgeben, wo sich Elemente mit Verbindung zu den anti-schiitischen pakistanischen Taliban und der Gruppe Islamischer Staat einen sicheren Aufenthaltsort geschaffen hätten. Der Bezirk sei auch aus dem pakistanischen Gebiet im Osten einer ähnlichen Bedrohung gegenübergestanden, in dem bis 2014 sunnitische militante Gruppen Zuflucht gefunden hätten. In den Jahren 2007 und 2008 hätten die Turi und Bangasch in Kurram einen Krieg gegen die pakistanischen Taliban geführt, um zu verhindern, dass diese den Bezirk überlaufen. Zum anderen gebe es anhaltende Zweifel über die Absicht und die Möglichkeiten des Militärs, sie zu schützen:

„The two tribes of Kurram - the Turi and the Bangash - own scores of light and heavy machine-guns, rocket-propelled grenades and even a few anti-aircraft guns, held in community-managed stockpiles in several locations along the border of Kurram Agency, where Parachinar is the main town. The tribes are reluctant to part with their weapons for two reasons.

First, Kurram is the only one among Pakistan's seven semi-autonomous tribal districts which is inhabited by Shia Muslims. The district is surrounded on three sides by Afghan territory where elements linked to the Pakistani Taliban and the so-called Islamic State group have carved sanctuaries. These elements adhere to a hard-line Sunni version of Islam which is fiercely anti-Shia. They see Shias as heretics and consider it their sacred duty to eliminate them from the face of the Earth. The district has also faced similar threats from Pakistani territory to the east, which until 2014 served as a sanctuary for Sunni hardline militant groups. During 2007-8, the Turi and Bangash tribes of Kurram fought a protracted war against the Pakistani Taliban to prevent them from over-running Kurram and capturing strategic routes to attack the Afghan capital, Kabul, just over 90km (55 miles) north-west of the western tip of Kurram. They have also conducted short expeditions against Sunni tribes in the west to secure their border against attempts by Sunni militants to infiltrate from there.

Second, there are lingering doubts about both the intentions and the ability of the military to defend them. ‘Even though the military claims that they can defend us, we can't forget that we were left to our own devices when the Taliban captured our areas and tried to force their way to Parachinar,’ one local elder said. ‘And [the military] still continue to back some Taliban groups, who lurk on our border and may at any time in future want to force their way to our western border for their war on Kabul.’” (BBC News, 26. Jänner 2017)

Die pakistanische Tageszeitung Dawn schreibt im Jänner 2017 von einer Kampagne zur Entwaffnung in der Kurram Agency. Älteste in Parachinar hätten dazu gemeint, es sei derzeit nicht angebracht, die Stämme zu entwaffnen. Sie würden sich nicht sicher fühlen, da Grenzposten von afghanischer Seite angegriffen worden seien. Ein Brigadekommandant habe die Ältesten gebeten, die Waffen freiwillig zu übergeben, die Stammesgebiete seien von Terroristen gesäubert worden. Menschen seien besorgt, Kämpfe in Kurram zwischen 2007 und 2010 hätten zu 3.000 Toten und tausenden Familien auf der Flucht geführt. Eine Mehrzahl der Vertriebenen sei noch nicht zurückgekehrt. Kurram habe wegen seiner konfessionellen Zusammensetzung und seiner strategischen Lage eine andere Dynamik als andere Agencies. Obwohl sich die Sicherheitslage deutlich verbessert habe, würden Elemente des Islamischen Staats (IS) und der pakistanischen Taliban als Bedrohung für die Kurram Agency gesehen. Ein früherer Corps-Kommandant von Peschawar habe letztes Jahr zur Vorsicht gemahnt, da es Drohungen in Kurram von der anderen Seite der Grenze gegeben habe. Lokale Behörden hätten Dorfbewohner entlang der Grenze gebeten, Posten auf den Hügeln zu errichten und während der Nacht wachsam zu bleiben. Die Bewohner seien verwirrt, da es widersprüchliche Aussagen der Behörden gebe, einmal sagten sie, die Hügel müssten bewacht werden, dann wollten sie die Waffen einsammeln. Der Statthalter der Agency habe gemeint, es habe vor Monaten eine Bedrohung aus Afghanistan gegeben, aber jetzt gebe es einen Wachposten nach jedem Kilometer, es gebe also keinen Vorwand, Minen, Luftabwehrgeschütze und andere Waffen zu bunkern:

„The government has launched a deweaopnisation campaign in Kurram Agency, asking the local tribal people to hand over weapons to the administration. However, elders in Parachinar say that recent history of violence against the tribes and fragile security situation in Afghanistan make this move inopportune at this moment. ‘The so-called Islamic State has headquarters in our backyard (Nangarhar). Disarming Turi and Bangash tribes in upper and lower parts of Kurram is very inappropriate. Any action against tribes at this moment will create problems,’ MNA Sajid Hussain Turi told Dawn. He said that their people didn’t feel safe from the Afghanistan side as border posts were being attacked from Afghan territory.

Local Brigade Commander Brigadier Malak Amir Mohammad Khan asked tribal elders at a jirga in Parachinar on Tuesday last to voluntarily surrender their ‘heavy weapons’ to the political administration within 45 days otherwise strict action against violators of order would be taken. ‘All the tribal areas had been cleansed of terrorists and compliance of law is the collective responsibility of every citizen,’ the official Associated Press of Pakistan had quoted the army officer as saying. Elders say history of violence against tribes and situation in Afghanistan make the move inappropriate. According to the deadline, people could retain AK-47 assault rifles and other traditional weapons for personal safety. Officials said that each tribe in the agency piled and stored weapons to be used in collective action by the tribe against any aggressor. ‘These weapons have become liabilities for the tribes now,’ they added. The deadline stirred worries among the people, who have yet to come out of trauma of violence that led to three-year long blockade of the main route to Kurram.

Clashes in Kurram from November 2007 to 2010 had left over 3,000 people dead while thousands of families were forced to flee their homes. Majority of the displaced families have yet to return to their native lands. Unlike other tribal agencies of Fata, Kurram has different dynamics because of sectarian divides and its geo-strategic location. Kurram is surrounded by Afghanistan from three sides and remained in turmoil since 1980 when Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

Although security situation in the area has witnessed remarkable improvement particularly after military operations in North Waziristan, Orakzai and Kurram’s adjacent areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, but IS and outlawed Tehreek-i-Taliban Pakistan’s elements on Afghan territory are considered threat for Kurram Agency.

Former corps commander of Peshawar Lt-Gen Hidayatur Rehman during a press briefing last year had cautioned that “threat warnings in Kurram have been received from across the border.”

Sensing threat from the Afghanistan, local authorities had asked villagers residing along the border to set up posts on the hilltops and keep vigil during night to prevent any attack from Paktia and Khost provinces. An elder from Upper Kurram said that inconsistency in the statements of decision makers confused people and they did not rely on their assurances. “One day they (officials) ask people to occupy peaks and start night patrolling to stop incursion of militants from the Afghan side and the other day they turn somersault giving deadline to the tribes to surrender weapons. We fail to understand their wisdom,” he said.

[…] Mr Hussain said that state apparatus knew that Turi and Bangash tribes had never fought against the state and supported every action of the government against anti-state elements and criminals. Political Agent Ikramullah Khan said that local tribes were asked about one year ago to hand over their heavy weapons and ammunitions to the administration. He said that deweaponisation was part of the plan to purge society from illegal weapons. He added that local administration would hold talks at the clan and village level to ask people to surrender their weapons. “In the specific context of Kurram the administration has offered tribes to handover heavy weapons, to be documented and will be a trust with the local authorities,” he said, “there is no such example in other tribal agencies, where the people are not allowed even to keep sling shot.”

[…] “Yes, there was threat from the Afghanistan side few months ago, but now there is a security post after every one kilometre along the border. There is no justification to dump anti-tank mines, anti-aircraft guns and other lethal weapons on the pretext of threat from the Afghan side,” he [Political Agent Ikramullah Khan] said.” (Dawn, 2. Jänner 2017)

Die indische Tageszeitung The New Indian Express berichtet am 1. April 2017 von einem Anschlag der pakistanischen Taliban auf eine schiitische Versammlungshalle in Parachinar in der Kurram Agency. Dabei seien mindestens 24 Menschen getötet und über hundert verletzt worden. Die Stämme Tori und Bangasch hätten nach dem Anschlag Proteste abgehalten und später mit den örtlichen Behörden verhandelt:

„The Pakistani Taliban yesterday targeted a Shiite imambargah in Parachinar, Kurram Agency, with a powerful car bomb, killing at least 24 people and injuring over 100 others at a crowded market. Parachinar residents protested with the bodies of those killed and demanded immediate action against those involved in the attack. All trading, shopping centres, markets, bazaars, government and private institutions were closed as part of a protest against the bombing. The Tori and Bangash tribes which held the protests later called off their demonstration after negotiations with the administration.

The protesting tribesmen asked the administration how the explosives-laden car entered the agency despite tough security arrangements and presence of a number of security check posts. Tribal elders and representatives of the political administration negotiated for two hours following the protests. Members of the armed forces and religious scholars were also part of the negotiations, Geo News reported.

[…] Medical superintendent at the agency headquarters hospital said he received 135 injured people of whom 37 were airlifted to Peshawar and over 40 were being treated in Parachinar. Jamaat-ul-Ahrar, a breakaway faction of the Pakistani Taliban, claimed responsibility for the attack. Kurram Agency is considered one of the most sensitive tribal regions as it borders three Afghan provinces and was once the main route for cross-border militant activity. The blast was the latest in a series of attacks targeting the minority Shias in the Sunni-majority Pakistan.” (The New Indian Express, 1. April 2017)

Auch das South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP), ein Projekt des in New Delhi ansässigen Institute for Conflict Management, berichtet im April 2017 über den Anschlag in Parachinar. Der Anschlag sei Teil der „Operation Ghazi” der pakistanischen Taliban (TTP) gewesen und sei von der Gruppe Dschama'at-ul-Ahrar ausgeführt worden. SATP erwähnt weitere Anschläge in Parachinar im Jänner 2017 und im Dezember 2015, bei denen jeweils 25 Menschen getötet worden seien. Es wird auch eine Gruppe namens Ansar-ul-Hussain erwähnt, die von den nationalen Behörden auf die Liste von Terrororganisationen gesetzt worden sei und die in Parachinar, der Orakzai Agency und dem Bezirk Kohat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) aktiv sei, um Schiiten für den Kampf gegen den IS zu rekrutieren:

„At least 24 persons were killed and another 100 injured in a suicide attack on an Imambargah (Shia place of worship) in the Noor market area of Parachinar town in the Kurram Agency of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) on March 31, 2017. The explosion took place as people gathered for Friday prayers near the women's entrance of Imambargah. A witness stated that security personnel at the Imambargah were checking devotees when an unidentified person parked a car next to the building, which then exploded. Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) faction Jama'at-ul-Ahrar (JuA) claimed responsibility for the attack. The attack was part of TTP's ‘Operation Ghazi’ and Shias were the targets, according to the outfit's statement to the media.

On January 21, 2017, 25 persons were killed and more than 87 injured in a bomb explosion at the Sabzi Mandi (vegetable market) area, again in Parachinar town, in the morning when the market was crowded with retailers buying fruits and vegetables. In a text message sent to journalists, the al-Alami (International) faction of Lashkar-i-Jhangvi (LeJ) claimed that it, along with the TTP splinter Shehryar Mehsud group, had carried out the attack. […]

Earlier, on December 13, 2015, a similar blast in a makeshift market in Parachinar had killed 25 people and injured 62. Two militant groups, LeJ Al-Alami and Ansarul Mujahideen (based in South Waziristan Agency) claimed responsibility for the attack, with one of them saying the target was the Shia community. […]

Complicating issues, the Federal Government put an unknown group named 'Ansar-ul-Hussain' on the National Counter Terrorism Authority (NACTA) ban list of terrorist outfit on December 30, 2016, for its alleged involvement in recruiting Shia youth from Kurram and adjacent areas to fight the Islamic State (IS, also Daesh). However, NACTA officials declined to comment Ansar-ul-Hussain's involvement in any specific activities or on the reasons behind its proscription. Muhammad Aamir Rana, a security analyst and director of the Islamabad-based Pakistan Institute of Peace Studies (PIPS) claimed that Ansar-ul-Hussain was not involved in any terrorist activities in Pakistan, but a group of some people with this name was working in areas of Parachinar as well as the Orakzai Agency of FATA and the Kohat District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), to recruit Shia youth to fight Daesh.” (SATP, 3. April 2017)

Weiters schreibt das South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP), dass die Kurram Agency, die lange für konfessionell motivierte Gewalt bekannt gewesen sei, in den vergangenen Jahren einen eindeutigen Rückgang solcher Zwischenfälle verzeichnet hätte. Jedoch sei das von Schiiten dominierte Parachinar in der Upper Kurram Agency weiterhin ein Hauptziel von sunnitischen Terrorgruppen. Die Eskalation habe im April 2007 mit einem Anschlag auf ein schiitisches Versammlungsgebäude begonnen. Kämpfe zwischen 2007 und 2010 hätten zu 3.000 Toten und Tausenden Vertriebenen geführt. Abgesehen von den jüngsten Selbstmordattentaten habe der rückläufige Trend konfessioneller Zwischenfälle zu einer gewissen Entspannung der lokalen Bevölkerung geführt. Andererseits sei es zu einem gleichzeitigen Anstieg von terroristischen und militanten Aktivitäten von jenseits der afghanischen Grenze gekommen. Während sich die Sicherheitslage besonders nach Armeeoperationen in Nordwasiristan, Orakzai und den der Kurram Agency benachbarten Gebieten von Khyber Pakhtunkhwa deutlich verbessert habe, habe die Präsenz der pakistanischen Taliban (TTP) und der Gruppe Islamischer Staat (IS) im angrenzenden afghanischen Gebiet neue Bedrohungen für die Kurram Agency geschaffen. Terrorangriffe von jenseits der Grenze seien ein übliches Phänomen. SATP nennt den Beschuss mit vier Granaten von jenseits der Grenze am 2. April 2017 als Beispiel, bei dem Vorfall sei niemand ums Leben gekommen. Als weitere Vorfälle nennt SATP ein Feuergefecht im Februar 2017 zwischen Sicherheitskräften und elf Terroristen, die von afghanischem Gebiet in die Kurram Agency eindringen wollten und dabei getötet worden seien, sowie einen Selbstmordanschlag mit zwei Verletzten an einem Grenzübergang im Oktober 2016 und einen Angriff auf einen Posten der Sicherheitskräfte im Grenzgebiet im April 2016, bei dem 18 Terroristen getötet worden seien:

„The Kurram Agency, long known for sectarian violence, has seen a definite decline in such incidents in recent years, However, Shia dominated Parachinar in the Upper Kurram Agency remains a principal target for Sunni sectarian terrorist formations. Kurram comprises three sub-divisions: Upper, Central and Lower Kurram. Some 58 per cent of its population is Sunni, and 42 per cent Shia (according to the 1998 Census). The majority of Shias live in Upper Kurram, while Sunnis dominate Lower and Central Kurram. The present cycle of escalation started when three people were killed and 13 were injured in an attack on a Shia Imambargah in the morning of April 6, 2007. Clashes in Kurram from November 2007 to 2010 had left over 3,000 people dead, while thousands of families were forced to flee their homes.

Unlike other tribal agencies of FATA, the dynamics in Kurram are different because of the sectarian divide and the geo-strategic location of the Agency. Kurram is surrounded by Afghanistan from three sides and has remained in turmoil since 1980, after the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Thrust into Afghanistan on three sides, the Kurram Agency has always been of critical importance for Pakistan. It shares the major portion of its borders with the troubled Logar, Paktia, Khost and Nangarhar Provinces of Afghanistan. The al Qaeda and Taliban infested Tora Bora Mountain range in the Nangarhar Province of Afghanistan shares its boundaries with the Kurram Agency. In the north-east, Kurram abuts the Khyber Agency; the the Orakzai Agency lies to its east; the Hangu District of KP is on its south-east; and the North Waziristan Agency lies south. The Kurram Agency connects the tribal areas of Pakistan to Afghanistan through lower, central and upper Kurram. Crucially, the Thal-Parachinar route is the shortest route to Kabul.

Apart from the recent suicide attacks, the broad trend of decline in sectarian incidents has given some relief to locals. This has, however, come at the cost of a simultaneous increase in terrorist and militant activities from across the Afghan border. While the security situation has witnessed remarkable improvements, particularly after Army operations in North Waziristan, Orakzai and Kurram's adjacent areas of KP, the presence of TTP and IS on the abutting Afghan territory have created new threats for the Kurram Agency. Member of National Assembly (MNA) Sajid Hussain Turi thus observed that the people did not feel safe from the Afghanistan side, as border posts were being attacked from Afghan territory. For instance, on April 2, 2017, four missiles were fired from across the Pak-Afghan border into Kurram Agency. A spokesperson of the local administration stated that the missiles were fired from Afghanistan's Paktia province, and panicked the locals, though there was no loss of life. Terrorist attacks from across the border are a regular phenomenon, and some of the major incidents include:

February 19, 2017: Eleven terrorists allegedly attempting to enter Pakistan from Afghanistan were killed in a clash with SFs in the Sapperkot and Para Chamkani area of Kurram Agency. Two Kurram militia members were also injured in the gun battle between SFs and the terrorists.

October 14, 2016: Two persons including a soldier sustained injuries in a suicide attack on a border crossing at Kharlachi in Kurram Agency. The suicide bomber was trying to enter Pakistan from the Paktia province of Afghanistan through the border crossing.

April 7, 2016: 18 terrorists were killed in a cross border attack on a SF checkpost in the Mangora Sar area on the Pak-Afghan border in Kurram Agency.” (SATP, 3. April 2017)

SATP beschreibt in seinem Beitrag ebenfalls die Mobilisierung von Dorfbewohnern zur Errichtung von Posten auf den Hügeln im April 2016 und die Kampagne zur Entwaffnung in der Kurram Agency im Dezember 2016. Außerdem erwähnt SATP, dass im Februar 2017 hunderte Flugblätter mit Drohungen gegen Schiiten aufgetaucht seien, die angeblich vom IS in der Kurram Agency verbreitet worden seien. Ein Vertreter der schiitischen Stämme in Kurram habe gemeint, dass die Politik von Regierungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten die lokale Bevölkerung gezwungen hätte, sich selbst gegen feindliche Elemente innerhalb und außerhalb des Tales zu schützen. Laut SATP habe es als Folge des Anstiegs von terroristischen Zwischenfällen im ganzen Land eine Verstärkung von Sicherheitsmaßnahmen auch in heiklen Gebieten der Kurram Agency gegeben. Sicherheitskräfte in großer Zahl seien bei Regierungsgebäuden, Moscheen, schiitischen Versammlungsgebäuden, großen Märkten, Spitälern und Busstationen postiert worden. Truppen seien an allen Ein- und Ausfahrten, unter anderem in Parachinar, stationiert worden und Straßensperren seien an sensiblen Punkten errichtet worden. Trotz der hohen Sicherheitsstufe hätten es die Terroristen geschafft, Angriffe durchzuführen, was zu Zweifeln an der Behauptung der Regierung geführt habe, den Terrorismus in den Stammesgebieten eingedämmt zu haben:

„Due to the persistent threat from Afghanistan, local authorities have asked villagers residing along the border to set up posts on the hilltops and to keep vigil during the night to prevent any attack from the Paktia and Khost Provinces. On April 3, 2016, the Assistant Political Agent and the Commandant of the Kurram Militia met elders of the Turi, Bangash and Mangal tribes near Parachinar, to mobilise the tribal people against the threat. An elder from Borki disclosed, "Officials say that IS and TTP's fighters were involved in attacks on the security posts. People are not only keeping vigil during night, but elders of Borki and Kherlachi have also provided four heavy machineguns and ammunition to the paramilitary forces as a gesture of support."

However, after some months, the Government launched a deweaopnisation campaign in Kurram Agency on December 27, 2016, asking the local tribal people to hand over weapons to the administration. [...]

Tribal elders in Parachinar, however, remained apprehensive, as the recent history of violence against the tribes and the fragile security situation in Afghanistan continued to threaten security in the Agency. MNA Sajid Hussain Turi thus observed, "The so-called Islamic State has headquarters in our backyard (Nangarhar). Disarming Turi and Bangash tribes in upper and lower parts of Kurram is very inappropriate. Any action against tribes at this moment will create problems." On February 7, 2017, hundreds of pamphlets containing threats were allegedly distributed by Daesh in the Kurram Agency on the Pakistani side of the Durand Line, threatening attacks in specific tribal areas. The Daesh pamphlet declared, in the local language, Pashto, "We have achieved our goals in Afghanistan and are now ready to confront Shia renouncers in Pakistan's tribal areas."

Haji Faqir Hussain, secretary of the Anjuman-e-Hussainia, the central representative body of various Shia tribes in Kurram, noted that the indifferent policies of successive Governments over the past decades had forced the local population to secure themselves against hostile elements within and outside the Valley: ‘The administration can't guarantee our safety, keeping in view the harsh realities of recent past. Disarming people at this moment is tantamount to tying their hands and feet.’

As a result of the recent surge in terrorist incidents across the country, there has been a step up in the security arrangements in sensitive areas of the Kurram Agency as well. Security personnel in large numbers have been deputed at the Government Offices, Mosques, Imambargahs, big shopping markets, hospitals, and bus stands, to avoid the possibility of any mishap. Troops have been deployed at all the exit and entry points, including Parachinar, the headquarters of the Agency, Sadda and Alizai, and barricades have been erected at sensitive places in the Agency for checking. A majority of roads leading to Government offices in the Agency have been sealed. Despite the high security alert, the terrorists have succeeded in executing attacks, putting a question mark against the Government's claims of having tamed terrorism in the tribal areas.” (SATP, 3. April 2017)

Das in Peshawar ansässige Tribal News Network (TNN), eine Nachrichtenagentur für die Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) und Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), berichtet im April 2016, dass die Verwaltung der Kurram Agency Einschränkungen gegen die lokalen Stämme der Balischkhel, der Mahora und der Sadi Bangasch verhängt habe, weil diese gesuchte Kriminelle nicht an die Behörden ausgeliefert hätten. Es würden keine Identitätskarten ausgegeben und Vergünstigungen dieser Stämme seien eingestellt worden. Laut Behördenvertretern würde die Verwaltung auf Basis der Bestimmungen zur kollektiven Verantwortung in der Verordnung zur Grenzkriminalität (Frontier Crimes Regulation, FCR) bald damit beginnen, Personen der drei Stämme festzunehmen:

„The political administration of Kurram Agency has imposed restrictions of obtaining Computerized National Identity Cards (CNICs), domicile certificates and passports on people belonging to three tribes as penalty for not handing over wanted criminals to the administration. According to officials of the political administration a commercial centre Usmania plaza was razed to the ground in Parachinar a few days back. The officials added that the local tribes Balishkhel, Mahora and Sadi Bangash were asked to handed accused Iqbal Hussain and Wajahat Hussain but they did not comply the orders. The administration has also suspended the incentives of the three tribes. Officials maintained that under the collective responsibility clauses of the FCR [Frontier Crimes Regulation], the administration would soon start arresting people of the three tribes.” (TNN, 23. April 2016)

In einem Beitrag von TNN vom März 2015 wird berichtet, dass eine alte Rivalität zwischen den Stämmen Bangasch und Turi nach 55 Jahren durch eine Jirga in der Kurram Agency beigelegt worden sei. Die Stämme hätten einen Disput wegen eines Friedhofs und Landbesitzes im Gebiet Boshehra Parachinar gehabt, der im Laufe der Zeit mehrere Menschenleben gefordert hätte:

„An old rivalry between Bangash and Turi tribes has been resolved after 55 years through a Jirga in Kurram Agency. The two tribes had a dispute over a cemetery and land for the last more than 50 years in Boshehra Parachinar area, and it has claimed several lives so far. The issue was solved today at a Jirga convened by Political Agent Amjad Ali. Elders of both the tribes hugged each other and buried the hatchet.” (TNN, 17. März 2015)

Binnenvertriebene

Tribal News Network (TNN) berichtet im Februar 2017, dass 200 aus der Region Sadda in der Kurram Agency stammende Familien des Stammes Turi-Bangasch, die vor 35 Jahren vertrieben worden seien, von der Regierung verlangt hätten, ihnen den Status als Binnenvertriebene zu gewähren und ihre Rückkehr zu arrangieren. Laut dem stellvertretenden Statthalter Shahid Ali Khan habe es die FATA Disaster Management Authority (FDMA) vor 35 Jahren noch nicht gegeben, deshalb hätten die Familien den Status als Binnenvertriebene nicht erhalten. Weiters habe er gesagt, die Behörden hätten bereits mit Bemühungen begonnen den Status als Binnenvertriebene zu gewähren.

„The 200 families of Turi-Bangash tribe hailing from Sadda area of Kurram Agency, who were displaced 35 years ago, have demanded the government to give them status of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and make arrangements for their return to their area. The Turi-Bangash tribe elders Malik Iqrar Ahmed Khan, Haji Rajab Ali and Malik Ali Nazar said while addressing a press conference in Parachinar on Monday that 200 families of the tribe were displaced from Sadda 35 years ago due to law and order issues, but they did not get the status of IDPs. They said other tribes have confiscated their lands due to which they are facing a very difficult situation. They demanded the political administration to help them to come back to their area and reconstruct their houses. “We want our homes back and we also want jobs and other facilities. The government should protect our rights and provide us facilities,” Waqar Ahmed, a tribal elder, told TNN. Assistant Political Agent Shahid Ali Khan said the FATA Disaster Management Authority (FDMA) did not exist 35 years ago that is why the Turi-Bangash families did not get IDPs status. He said the administration has already started efforts for giving IDPs status to Turi-Bangash tribe and resolving the ownership disputes of lands in Kurram.” (TNN, 28. Februar 2017)

Im März 2017 zitiert TNN den Abgeordneten Sajid Hussain Turi aus der Kurram Agency, der sich auf eine Dschirga (Ratsversammlung) des Stammes Turi-Bangasch in Parachinar bezog. Laut Turi hätten hunderte vertriebene Familien noch keinen Status als Binnenvertriebene erhalten und hätten damit keinen Zugang zu staatlicher Hilfe:

„Member National Assembly from Kurram Agency Sajid Hussain Turi has said the reconstruction of all the damaged houses of displaced people was inevitable to ensure durable peace in the region. Addressing a Jirga of Turi-Bangash tribe in Parachinar on Tuesday, the lawmaker said durable peace could not return to the region till the rehabilitation of all displaced people. He said hundreds of families had been displaced from Sadda and other parts of Kurram Agency, but they were not given the status of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and they remain deprived of government assistance. He said the displaced people of Kurram need immediate assistance of the government as they are facing countless problems. Mr Turi called upon the government to take steps to ensure honourable repatriation of all displaced people of Kurram.” (TNN, 15. März 2017)

Das UN-Flüchtlingshilfswerk (UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR) schreibt in seinem Update zu Pakistan vom Mai 2016, dass über 878.000 Personen als Binnenvertriebene in KP und FATA registriert seien. Seit Jänner 2016 seien über 270.000 Personen zurückgekehrt. Die aktuelle Phase der Rückkehr von Binnenvertriebenen in die Agencies Kurram und Orakzai sei im Mai mit über 73.000 Rückkehrern abgeschlossen worden. Rückkehrer würden umgerechnet 350 US-Dollar von der Regierung bei Rückkehr ausbezahlt bekommen. UNHCR unterstütze die Rückkehr, Beobachtungensmissionen in Gebieten mit Vertriebenen und Rückkehrern seien durchgeführt worden:

„As of 31st May, some 146,485 IDP families (878,910 individuals) were registered as internally displaced in camps and host communities in the KP province and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). As part of the inter‐agency response, UNHCR continues to lead the Protection, CCCM and Emergency Shelter/NFIs clusters. The UN Refugee Agency continues to support displaced persons and returnees through mobile protection teams and grievances desks in KP province. Since January 2016, over 1,621 grievances have been recorded and 78 percent of those cases have been resolved.

Since January 2016, over 270,690 individuals have returned (a total of 947,328 individuals between 2015 and 2016) to de-notified areas. In May, the current phase of return of IDP families to Kurram and Orakzai agencies has been completed with 73,651 individuals who have returned. Returns to South Waziristan Agency (SWA) and North Waziristan Agency (NWA) agencies are still on-going, with an aim to return 30,000 families to SWA, 22,000 families to NWA. A cash grants of PKR 35,000 (USD 350) will be distributed to returnees at the return embarkation points by the Government of Pakistan. Standard Operating Procedures have been put in place by humanitarian actors to guarantee the voluntary, safe, dignified, and well-informed nature of returns. Return intention surveys have been conducted, together with inter-cluster assessment missions, whenever access is granted by local authorities. UNHCR supported the return and provided voluntary return forms (VRFs) to 45,115 IDP families, In addition, protection monitoring activities in displacement and return areas have been conducted.” (UNHCR, Mai 2016, S. 3)

Die FATA Disaster Management Authority (FDMA) schreibt in ihrem Jahresbericht zu 2016, dass von 447.924 binnenvertriebenen Familien 391.574 Familien mit Unterstützung der Regierung, der Vereinten Nationen und von nationalen und internationalen NGOs in ihre Herkunftsgebiete zurückgekehrt seien. Nach Jahren anhaltender Vertreibung würden die Binnenvertriebenen endlich zurückkehren. Das Schlimmste sei noch nicht vorüber, da vieles zerstört sei. Binnenvertriebene würden von der Regierung mit Geld für Rückkehr und Transport, Essensrationen und anderen Geldleistungen unterstützt. Außerdem würden sie beim Wiederaufbau ihrer Häuser unterstützt:

„The year 2016 has been a busy year for FDMA in terms of return of TDPs to their area of origin. According to official figures, 447,924 families were displaced out of which 391,574 has been returned to their area of origin with support from Govt. of Pakistan, Law Enforcement Agencies, UN Agencies, INGOs and NGOs. After years of protracted displacement, the TDPs are finally returning to their area of origin. The displacement brought multitude of challenges for the TDPs, but the worse is still not over as they return to damaged houses, livelihood and basic living facilities and services. The Federal Govt's priority is to ensure dignified, safe and sustainable return of TDPs.In this regard TDPs are provided with return grant, transportation grant, food package, child wellness grant, livelihood support grant. The TDPs are also provided support for reconstruction of their houses through Citizen Losses and Compensation Program. The TDPs are provided with Four hundred thousand (PKR 400,000) for each fully damaged house and one hundred and sixty thousand (PKR160,000) for partially damaged house through RRU Unit which has now been transferred to FATA Disaster Management Authority.“ (FDMA, April 2017, S. 3)

Auf den Seiten 18 bis 23 des FDMA-Jahresberichts werden die Leistungen an Binnenvertriebene im Detail angeführt. (FDMA, April 2017, S. 18-23)

 

Die FDMA veröffentlichte eine Statistik zu Binnenvertriebenen mit Stand 19. Juni 2017, demnach seien 100 Prozent aller registrierten Binnenvertriebenen aus der Kurram Agency zurückgekehrt. (FDMA, 19. Juni 2017)

 

 

 

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 22. Juni 2017)

·      BBC News: The little boy killed at the market, 26. Jänner 2017
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-38733520

·      Dawn: Deweaponisation drive stirs worries among Kurram people, 2. Jänner 2017
http://reliefweb.int/report/pakistan/deweaponisation-drive-stirs-worries-among-kurram-people

·      DFAT - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia): DFAT Thematic Report: Shias in Pakistan, 18. Dezember 2013

·      Encyclopædia Iranica: Bangaṧ, 15. Dezember 1988
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bangas-pashtun-tribe

·      FATA - Federally Administered Tribal Areas: Kurram Agency – Demography, ohne Datum
https://fata.gov.pk/Global-fac.php?iId=192&fid=33&pId=176&mId=87

·      FDMA - FATA Disaster Management Authority, Government of Pakistan: Annual Report, April 2017
http://www.fdma.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/FDMA-Annual-Report.pdf

·      FDMA - FATA Disaster Management Authority, Government of Pakistan: TDP’s Statistics as of 19-06-2017, 19. Juni 2017
http://www.fdma.gov.pk/tdps-statistics-as-of-19-06-2017

·      Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Languages, ohne Datum
http://kp.gov.pk/page/languages

·      Hulme, Eliszabeth: Bangash Tribe, 12. Juli 2016a (veröffentlicht vom Program for Culture & Conflict Studies der Naval Postgraduate School)
http://www.nps.edu/documents/105988371/107571254/Bangash+UPDATED.pdf/8012a074-835f-42b5-bbb4-74ded1d319eb?version=1.0&download=true

·      Hulme, Eliszabeth: Bangash Tribe, 12. Juli 2016b (veröffentlicht vom Program for Culture & Conflict Studies der Naval Postgraduate School)
http://www.nps.edu/documents/105988371/107571254/Bangash+Tribe.pdf/35971ee9-8747-49c4-86b9-eba0e65ea9da

·      SATP - South Asia Terrorism Portal: Kurram Agency: Sectarian Bloodshed (Autor: Tushar Ranjan Mohanty). In: South Asia Intelligence Review Weekly Assessments & Briefings, Volume 15, No. 40, 3. April 2017
http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/sair15/15_40.htm#assessment1

·      The New Indian Express: Pakistan Taliban bombing: Protesters demand action against militants, 1. April 2017
http://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2017/apr/01/pakistan-taliban-bombing-protesters-demand-action-against-militants-1588620.html

·      TNN – Tribal News Network: 55-Year Old Rivalry Resolved In Kurram Agency, 17. März 2015
http://www.radiotnn.com/55-year-old-rivalry-resolved-in-kurram-agency/

·      TNN – Tribal News Network: Kurram Political Admin Imposes Restrictions On Three Tribes For Not Handing Over Wanted Criminals, 23. April 2016
http://www.radiotnn.com/kurram-political-admin-imposes-restrictions-on-three-tribes-for-not-handing-over-wanted-criminals/

·      TNN – Tribal News Network: Turi-Bangash Displaced Families Want Repatriation To Kurram Agency, 28. Februar 2017
http://www.radiotnn.com/turi-bangash-displaced-families-want-repatriation-to-kurram-agency/

·      TNN – Tribal News Network: Rehabilitation Of All Displaced People Of Kurram Agency Sought, 15. März 2017
http://www.radiotnn.com/rehabilitation-of-all-displaced-people-of-kurram-agency-sought/

·      UNHCR – UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Factsheet Pakistan, Mai 2016
http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/UNHCR%20Pakistan%20Factsheet%20-%20MAY16.pdf