Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Legislation

The Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act, 2013 (SSMPA) provides the following:

5.

1. A person who enters into a same sex marriage contract or civil union commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of 14 years imprisonment.
2. A person who registers, operates or participates in gay clubs, societies and organisation, or directly or indirectly makes public show of same sex amorous relationship in Nigeria commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of 10 years imprisonment.
3. A person or group of persons who administers, witnesses, abets or aids the solemnization of a same sex marriage or civil union, or supports the registration, operation and sustenance of gay clubs, societies, organisations, processions or meetings in Nigeria commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of 10 years imprisonment. (Nigeria 2013, Sec. 5)

The Criminal Code Act provides the following:

214. Unnatural offences

Any person who

1. has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature; or
2. has carnal knowledge of an animal; or
3. permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him or her against the order of nature,

is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for fourteen years.

215. Attempt to commit unnatural offences

Any person who attempts to commit any of the offences defined in section 214 of this Code, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for seven years.

The offender cannot be arrested without warrant.

…

217. Indecent practices between males

Any male person who, whether in public or private, commits any act of gross indecency with another male person, or procures another male person to commit any act of gross indecency with him, or attempts to procure the commission of any such act by any male person with himself or with another male person, whether in public or private, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for three years.

The offender cannot be arrested without warrant. (Nigeria 1990, bold and italics in original)

According to sources, twelve states in northern Nigeria have the death penalty for homosexuality (UN 11 June 2021, para. 90) or same-sex sexual activity (ILGA World Dec. 2020, 25; Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.96; Freedom House 28 Feb. 2022, Sec. F4). A report from the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA World), a worldwide organization working for lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and intersex human rights (ILGA World n.d.), states that the 12 states with the death penalty are Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Niger, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara (ILGA World Dec. 2020, 38). According to a report from the Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), they are "not aware" of any cases in which someone has received the death penalty; however, Sharia [Shari'a, Shariah] courts "have reportedly sentenced individuals convicted of same-sex activities to lashings" (Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.96). The US Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) notes that convictions are "rare" because of "strict requirements" for evidence and witnesses (US Mar. 2021, 3). The same source further states that criminal codes in both the north and south of Nigeria "reflect the language in the Shari'a penal codes," which regard LGBTI behaviour as '"against the order of nature'" (US Mar. 2021, 3). Sources indicate that in the state of Taraba, the Violence and Discrimination Against Persons Prohibition Bill (2021) proposes life imprisonment for transgender individuals (Business Day 25 Feb. 2021; Amnesty International 29 Mar. 2022, 279).

2. Treatment by Society

According to a 2019 survey [1] by the Pew Research Center, a nonpartisan company which conducts social science research (Pew Research Center n.d.), 7 percent of people in Nigeria say homosexuality should be accepted by society, with the percentage of acceptance similar among Christians, at 6 percent, and Muslims, at 8 percent (Pew Research Center 25 June 2020). According to the Initiative for Equal Rights (TIERs), a non-profit organization based in Nigeria that works to promote human rights for sexual minorities, in a 2019 survey [2] of 2,400 people in Nigeria, 30 percent of respondents said they would accept a homosexual family member, 60 percent said they would not accept a homosexual family member, and 10 percent indicated they were unsure (TIERs June 2019, 4, 6, 12). The region with the highest percentage of respondents saying they would accept a homosexual family member was the South South Nigeria, at 44 percent, and the lowest was the South West, with 79 percent of respondents there saying they would not accept a homosexual family member (TIERs June 2019, 12). The same source further stated that 75 percent of respondents supported the SSMPA, 16 percent opposed the law, and 9 percent neither supported nor opposed it; 80 percent of respondents in the South West reported supporting the anti-same sex law, while in the North East and South East, which had the highest levels of opposition to the law, 22 percent opposed it (TIERs June 2019, 14). TIERs also stated that 92 percent of respondents disagreed that homosexuals should be allowed to get married, 74 percent agreed with a 14-year prison term as punishment for a same-sex relationship and 71 percent agreed that Nigeria would be better without homosexuals (TIERs June 2019, 18).

According to sources, in June 2022 a week-long Pride Festival was held in Lagos (GCN 1 July 2022; Dazed 4 July 2022; Gay Times 27 July 2022). An organizer of the event stated to Dazed, an independent magazine focused on pop culture (Dazed 10 Aug. 2008), that "most" financial resources for the event were spent on online and in-person security with ten security guards and locations for events only made public 24 hours in advance (Dazed 4 July 2022).

2.1 Discrimination Experienced by Persons Based on Their SOGIESC

According to the Freedom in the World 2022 report from Freedom House, LGBT+ individuals "face widespread official and societal discrimination" (Freedom House 28 Feb. 2022, Sec. F4). The Australia DFAT report states that individuals accused of homosexuality are "at risk" of losing their jobs, having to move from their village or neighbourhood, or facing deadly violence (Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.100). A TIERs report, covering human rights violations related to SOGIESC in Nigeria between December 2020 and November 2021, documented 521 cases, with "blackmail, extortion, assault, and battery" being the most common forms of rights violations carried out by non-state actors, defined as "the public, through individuals and groups, whether organised or not" (TIERs 2022, 16, 20). The TIERs report further notes that "Abuja, Enugu, and Benue recorded the highest reported violations" and "Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Niger, and Uyo recorded the lowest numbers" (TIERs 2022, 16). According to Al Jazeera, trans individuals face "[t]ransphobia and discrimination" in the forms of "deliberate misgendering, rejection by loved ones, being fetishised in romantic relationships, and even physical abuse or violence" (Al Jazeera 1 Nov. 2021). According to a country information report on Nigeria by the Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken), one "confidential" source reported that LGBTI students have been expelled from school due to their sexual orientation, while another noted that education spaces are a "slightly safer environment" (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 71). Freedom House states that individuals open about their LGBT+ orientation are "deterred" from political involvement and notes that LGBT+ advocacy groups were banned in 2014, with the signing of the SSMPA (Freedom House 28 Feb. 2022, Sec. B4). A Reuters article, describing a 2018 police raid in which 57 men suspected of violating the SSMPA were detained and filmed at a news conference, notes that in addition to the possibility of prison time, the men identified in videos faced societal "punish[ment]" because "homosexuality is broadly rejected" (Reuters 24 Feb. 2020). According to the article, some of the men lost their jobs, one man described his neighbours no longer acknowledging him, one individual was kicked out of his home, and another reported being beaten up three times by local gangs (Reuters 24 Feb. 2020). Citing a confidential source and representatives of civil society organizations, the report from the Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that expressing one's orientation is "easier" for "economically independent" LGBTI individuals because if they financially support their family, their families are less likely to treat them negatively (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 64).

2.2 Violence Against Individuals Based on Their SOGIESC

The 2021 report from TIERs identifies among the 521 cases reported between December 2020 and November 2021 the following human rights violations:

• 210 incidents of battery and assault and 14 "[m]ob" attacks,
• 40 cases of arbitrary arrest,
• 37 instances of "[i]nvasion of [p]rivacy,"
• 132 cases of extortion and 110 cases of blackmail
• 67 cases of "[f]orceful" eviction,
• 8 instances of conversion therapy,
• 28 cases of theft,
• 17 kidnappings,
• 3 wrongful dismissals,
• 15 rapes and 26 sexual assaults,
• 8 cases of defamation,
• 27 "[t]hreat[s] to [l]ife,"
• 40 instances of "[d]iscrimination," and
• 49 cases of harassment (TIERs 2022, 19).

The report further notes that parents and family members of women who identify as LGBTQI use violence aimed at '"correcting'" or '"converting'" them (TIERs 2022, 26). According to the report from Australia's DFAT, human right organizations have indicated that the SSMPA is used by police and the public to "legitimise human rights violations against LGBTI persons" including "torture, sexual violence, arbitrary detention, extortion and violations of due process rights" (Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.97). A report from Reuters describes the "blackmai[ling]" of LGBT+ individuals who look to find community online, detailing the experience of a woman who thought she was meeting a partner that she had messaged using WhatsApp but was instead "accosted on the road" by a man in a "military uniform" who "accused her of 'lesbianism'," and threatened to bring her to the police; the man then "took her to a hotel where he raped her" and later "threatened" her for money (Reuters 6 Sept. 2020). The article states that Reuters interviewed two other women who were "targeted online" by an individual with the same online profile name as the person the first woman expected to meet and "a man in fatigues" (Reuters 6 Sept. 2020). A report on Nigeria from the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) states that individuals who identify as LGBTI live in "constant fear" and points to reports of "humiliating treatment or mob attacks, both in private households and on the streets," as well as three "alleged" cases of individuals who were beaten to death (UN 11 June 2021, para. 91).

According to a TIERs report on conversion therapy in Nigeria [3], conversion practices refer to "specific forms of violence against LGBTQI+ persons in a bid to change their sexual orientation or gender identity" and often combine "coercion from family, friends or other social groups" with "other physically and mentally invasive methods from mental health professionals and or religious teachers" (TIERs Feb. 2022, 14, 18). The report further notes that conversion practices "may" occur in prison on individuals arrested for their sexual orientation and religious leaders will conduct conversion therapy using methods such as flogging, slapping, starving, beating, exorcism or sexual abuse (TIERs Feb. 2022, 18–19). The report states that of the 2,011 LGBTQI+ respondents for the community survey, 978 (49 percent) reported having undergone conversion therapy; moreover, 432 (36 percent) of the respondents who had not themselves experienced conversion attempts reported knowing someone else who had (TIERs Feb. 2022, 26, 36). The survey further found that 91 respondents had been forced to marry someone of the opposite sex and 57 had been raped by someone attempting to change their sexual orientation or gender identity (TIERs Feb. 2022, 43). An article from Al Jazeera states that the identity of transgender people is often seen as "non-existent" and they are viewed as gay and subjected to homophobia; the same article describes the experience of a transgender man who was found by a family member in bed with a woman, after which his family refused to discuss his gender identity and sent him to conversation therapy at a church (Al Jazeera 1 Nov. 2021).

3. Treatment by Authorities of People Based on Their SOGIESC

According to the TIERs report on human rights violations, "invasion of privacy, arbitrary arrests and unlawful detention were the most common rights violations perpetrated by state actors (law enforcement and other security agencies)" (TIERs 2022, 20). The report by the Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs notes that, according to confidential sources, when accessing government services and employment, transgender people, men who "present as 'feminine'," and lesbians who "present as 'masculine'" are the "most discriminated against" (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 64). The Australia DFAT report states that advocates have reported that authorities have used the SSMPA to deny LGBTI people access to education and services (Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.97).

3.1 Treatment by Police

The TIERs report on human rights violations notes that state actors, "especially law enforcement officials" are among the top offenders for violence against LGBTQI+ individuals (TIERs 2022, 12). Citing the Nigeria-based NGO Access to Good Health Initiative (AGHI), the same report further notes that after arresting 92 people at a raid on the grounds that they were gay, people were detained for almost a week, beaten, and refused medications (TIERs 2022, 21, 49). TIERS also points to a "rising trend in reports" of men who identify as gay, bisexual, pansexual or queer being "blackmailed, extorted" and "abused" by men they meet on "underground" dating apps, with those targeted "unable" to report these incidents to the police; moreover, in certain cases when the victim did report the crime, perpetrators avoided justice by revealing their victim's sexual orientation, and victims were subsequently "unlawfully detained, tortured and extorted" by law enforcement (TIERS 2022, 17–18). According to a report from the Advocates for Human Rights (The Advocates), an NGO that promotes and protects international human rights and the rule of law, government officials "fail" to "adequately" investigate and prosecute the disappearance of LGBTI+ people and "kidnapping and abduction" on the basis of SOGIESC is "often" not reported to police, since "many" LGBTI+ individuals "fear discrimination, arbitrary arrest and detention, or being ignored by police" (The Advocates 1 Dec. 2021, 1, 2). A news article from Reuters quotes the Executive Director of a Nigerian rights group as stating that the police use the SSMPA for harassment, with the article further quoting five individuals who have had same-sex relationships as stating that police in Lagos use the fear of a prison sentence and "the threat of the law to extort money from men" (Reuters 24 Feb. 2020). However, the report by the Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs notes that a confidential source reported that members of the LGBTI community have "successfully" turned to the police in Lagos for protection when being attacked by mobs, but also that they then had to pay a "ranso[m]" the next day to be released; the report also stated that a different confidential source indicated that while there are individual police officers who offer protection to LGBTI individuals in danger, the police "fail to do so" at the structural level (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 69).

3.2 Treatment in the Legal System

According to sources, three men in the state of Bauchi were sentenced to death by stoning for same-sex sexual acts (Human Dignity Trust 2022) or "engaging in homosexuality" (Reuters 2 July 2022). According to Vanguard, a Nigerian daily newspaper, two people were arrested for homosexual acts in the state of Jigawa (Vanguard 3 Sept. 2020). According to sources, 15 men were arrested by Hisbah [religious police (ICIR 24 Jan. 2022)] operatives in the city of Kano (TheCable 5 Jan. 2020; The Punch 6 Jan. 2020) and were sent to a correctional centre to be "re-oriented" (The Punch 6 Jan. 2020). A report from the News Agency of Nigeria (NAN), established by the government of Nigeria (NAN n.d.), states that five men were arrested in Kano State on suspicions of homosexuality (NAN 12 July 2021). According to Al Jazeera, a judge in Lagos "struck out" a case against 47 men who were arrested at a raid in a hotel and charged with publics displays of affection with members of the same sex (Al Jazeera 27 Oct. 2020). The source further notes that the case was struck out due to what the judge called a "'lack of diligent prosecution'," but as the case was not dismissed, the defendants can be re-arrested on the same charge (Al Jazeera 27 Oct. 2020). The Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs report notes that there have been no convictions under the SSMPA (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 67). Reuters similarly indicates that activist groups report that they are not aware of any prosecutions under the law (Reuters 24 Feb. 2020). The Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs report notes that a confidential source indicated that LGBTI advocacy groups have paid "ranso[ms]" for people arrested under the law (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 67). Reuters states that the number of people arrested under the SSMPA is unknown, but based on reports of police raids, the news agency estimates that the number is "likely to run into the hundreds each year" (Reuters 24 Feb. 2020).

Al Jazeera notes that there are "no legal procedures in Nigeria that allow a person to change their gender markers [on their identity documents], but there are no legal restrictions either" (Al Jazeera 1 Nov. 2021). The Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs report states that one confidential source indicated that since transgender people are not recognised, it is "impossible" to change sex on identity documents, while another indicates that if an individual never had an ID document prior to transitioning, it is "possible" to request an ID with their new sex due to the system for issuing identity documents and officials being unaware the person has transitioned (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 69).

3.3 Treatment by Health Authorities

According to the US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2021, LGBTQI+ people "persistently faced stigma, discrimination, and barriers to accessing basic health care," including "limiting physical access, challenges communicating with health-care providers, discriminatory or negative attitudes among health care workers, and high user fees" (US 12 Apr. 2022, 52). The Australia DFAT report notes that LGBTI people fear discrimination from doctors and nurses, including being reported to police (Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.100). The Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs cites a confidential source as indicating that transgender and intersex people face "the greatest barriers" in trying to access health care because it is the hardest for them to hide their sexual orientation and gender identity from health care providers (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 69). However, the Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs report also notes, citing unnamed sources, that in "many" cities, LGBTI people can access health care from some regular providers or LGBTI organizations (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 70). An article from Al Jazeera notes that access to health care for trans people is a "huge challenge" as healthcare providers may not know that trans people exist or may choose to ignore their existence; research studies and training in Nigeria do not include trans people (Al Jazeera 1 Nov. 2021). The report further notes that there is a "huge problem" of "institutional erasure" of trans bodies and identities, which can take such forms as the use of incorrect gender markers and "'dead names'," the refusal of services to trans patients, bias impacting the care provided, and the unavailability of "procedures like orchiectomy, penectomy, phalloplasty and metoidioplasty" in the country (Al Jazeera 1 Nov. 2021)

4. Treatment of Family Members

Information on the treatment of family members of individuals whose SOGIESC do not conform to societal norms was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response. In correspondence with the Research Directorate, the founder and Director of the Equality Triangle Initiative, a Nigeria-based rights and advocacy group for sexual and gender minorities (Equality Triangle Initiative n.d.), speaking on their own behalf, stated that "family members of LGBTQI-identifying individuals are not prone to violence or discrimination, either from society or authorities" but they "may be subjected to stigma" (Director 24 Oct. 2022).

4.1 Risk of FGM for Family Members

Information on the risk of FGM among family members of individuals whose SOGIESC do not conform to societal norms was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response. The Director noted that there is not "hard evidence" of an intersection between FGM and sexual orientation and gender identity and that they have not "come across" information on FGM and LGBTQI issues, "especially within the Nigerian context" (Director 24 Oct. 2022). In an interview with the Research Directorate, a youth champion with UNICEF/African Union, speaking on their own behalf, stated that FGM and LGBTQ rights are separate issues and family members being part of the LGBTQ community would not be motivation to perform FGM (Youth Champion 17 Nov. 2022).

5. Support Services

Section 5, paragraph 3 of the SSMPA provides as follows:

A person or group of persons who administers, witnesses, abets or aids the solemnization of a same sex marriage or civil union, or supports the registration, operation and sustenance of gay clubs, societies, organisations, processions or meetings in Nigeria commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of 10 years imprisonment. (Nigeria 2013, Sec. 5)

According to US Country Reports 2021, rights groups indicated that the SSMPA had "a significant chilling effect on free association" (US 12 Apr. 2022, 31). The Netherlands' Ministry of Foreign Affairs report notes that LGBTI individuals who speak English have greater access to community and support initiatives as they are "often" offered in English (Netherlands Mar. 2021, 64–65). The Australia DFAT report states that "several" NGOs provided legal advice, media training and health services, primarily focused on HIV/AIDS, to LGBT groups and individuals (Australia 3 Dec. 2020, para. 3.101).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] The survey covered 34 countries, including Nigeria (Pew Research Center 25 June 2020). In Nigeria, the survey was conducted face to face between 24 June and 7 August 2019 and included 995 respondents (Pew Research Center [2019]).

[2] The study was commissioned by the Initiative for Equal Rights (TIERs) and conducted by Vivid Rain Consulting (TIERs June 2019, 4), [a research services firm (Vivid Rain Consulting n.d.)]. Of respondents, "a little over" 53 percent were male, 46.5 percent were female, and 85 percent were between the ages of 18 and 40 years old (TIERs June 2019, 8).

[3] For the TIERs report on conversion practices, a survey of LGBTQI respondents across Nigeria was carried out, which gathered 2,011 responses, and follow-up focus group discussions were conducted (TIERs Feb. 2022, 25, 26, 27). Furthermore, six psychiatrists and one psychologist were interviewed from health care centres across Nigeria (TIERs Feb. 2022, 60, 61). Additionally, a questionnaire was completed by 203 students and 24 lecturers from Nigerian universities with accredited psychology programs (TIERs Feb. 2022, 60). Lastly, "fact-finding" discussions were held with 16 religious leaders (TIERS Feb. 2022, 93).

References

The Advocates for Human Rights (The Advocates). 1 December 2021. "Nigeria's Compliance with the Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance: Suggested List of Issues Relating to LGBTI Rights." [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

Al Jazeera. 1 November 2021. Timinepre Cole. "'I Feel Invisible': The Challenges of Being Trans in Nigeria." [Accessed 18 Oct. 2022]

Al Jazeera. 27 October 2020. "Nigerian Judge Throws out Homosexuality Case Against 47 Men." [Accessed 18 Oct. 2022]

Amnesty International. 29 March 2022. "Nigeria." Amnesty International Report 2021/2022: The State of the World's Human Rights. [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

Australia. 3 December 2020. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT). "Nigeria." DFAT Country Information Report. [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

Business Day. 25 February 2021. Nathanie Gbaoron. "Taraba Assembly Embraces Death Penalty for Rapists." [Accessed 28 Oct. 2022]

Dazed. 4 July 2022. Vincent Desmond. "What It Was Like to Attend Nigeria's Pride in Lagos Event." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Dazed. 10 August 2008. "Dazed & Confused." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Director, Equality Triangle Initiative. 24 October 2022. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Equality Triangle Initiative. N.d. "Equality Triangle." Twitter. [Accessed 2 Nov. 2022]

Freedom House. 24 February 2022. "Nigeria." Freedom in the World 2022. [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

Gay Community News (GCN). 1 July 2022. Lucia Stein. "LGBTQ+ Community in Nigeria Holds Exciting Week of Pride Events." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Gay Times. 27 July 2022. Hollie Wong. "Pride in Lagos: Stunning Photos from Nigeria's 'First of Its Kind' Pride." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Human Dignity Trust. 2022. "Nigeria." [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

The Initiative for Equal Rights (TIERs). February 2022. The Nature, Extent and Impacts of Conversion Practices in Nigeria. [Accessed 4 Oct. 2022]

The Initiative for Equal Rights (TIERs). 2022. 2021 Report on Human Rights Violations Based on Real or Perceived Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity/Expression and Sex Characteristics (SOGIESC) in Nigeria. [Accessed 5 Oct. 2022]

The Initiative for Equal Rights (TIERs). June 2019. Social Perception Survey on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Persons Rights in Nigeria. [Accessed 19 Oct. 2022]

International Center for Investigative Reporting (ICIR). 24 January 2022. Lukman Abolade. "Report: How Nigeria's Religious Police, Hisbah Repress' Freedom in Kano." [Accessed 28 Oct. 2022]

International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA World). December 2020. "Nigeria." State Sponsored Homophobia 2020. [Accessed 4 Oct. 2022]

International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA World). N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 19 Oct. 2022]

Netherlands. March 2021. Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken. "Nigeria." Country of Origin Information Report. [Accessed 7 Oct. 2022]

News Agency of Nigeria (NAN). 12 July 2021. Bosede Olufunmi. "Kano Hisbah Arrests 5 Men for Allegedly Engaging in Homosexuality." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

News Agency of Nigeria (NAN). N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 21 Oct. 2022]

Nigeria. 2013. The Same-Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act (2013). [Accessed 4 Oct. 2022]

Nigeria. 1990. Criminal Code Act. [Accessed 19 Oct. 2022]

Pew Research Center. 25 June 2020. Jacob Poushter and Nicholas Kent. "The Global Divide on Homosexuality Persists." [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

Pew Research Center. [2019]. "Country Specific Methodology." [Accessed 1 Nov. 2022]

Pew Research Center. N.d. "About Pew Research Center." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

The Punch. 6 January 2020. Ted Odogwu. "Hisbah Storms Kano Gay Party, Nabs 15." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Reuters. 2 July 2022. Ardo Hazzad. "Nigerian Islamic Court Orders Death by Stoning for Men Convicted of Homosexuality." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Reuters. 6 September 2020. Vincent Desmond and Rachel Savage. "Blackmailed with Nudes, Nigerian Lesbians Find Safety Outside the Closet." [Accessed 20 Oct. 2022]

Reuters. 24 February 2020. Alexis Akwagyiram. "A Police Raid, Viral Videos and the Broken Lives of Nigerian Gay Law Suspects." [Accessed 7 Oct. 2022]

TheCable. 5 January 2020. Femi Owolabi. "Hisbah Arrests 15 People 'Involved in Gay Party' in Kano." [Accessed 21 Oct. 2022]

United Nations (UN). 11 June 2021. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Visit to Nigeria: Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, Agnès Callamard. (A/HRC/47/33/Add.2) [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

United States (US). 12 April 2022. Department of State. "Nigeria." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2021. [Accessed 7 Oct. 2022]

United States (US). March 2021. US Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF). "Factsheet Shari'a and LGBT Persons." [Accessed 6 Oct. 2022]

Vanguard. 3 September 2020. "Hisbah Arrests 2 in Jigawa over Alleged Homosexual Act." [Accessed 4 Oct. 2022]

Vivid Rain Consulting. N.d. "Vivid Rain Consulting." [Accessed 1 Nov. 2022]

Youth Champion, UNICEF/African Union. 17 November 2022. Interview with the Research Directorate.

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Centre for Women Studies and Intervention; Committee for the Defence of Human Rights Nigeria; The Initiative for Equal Rights; Nigerian author and activist who focuses on LGBT writing; No-FGM Campaign; Orchid Project; professor at a UK university who researches human rights, gender, and sexuality in Nigeria; Safehaven Development Initiative; Society for Improvement of Rural People; Women's Consortium of Nigeria; Women's Rights and Health Project.

Internet sites, including:; Austria – Federal Office for Immigration and Asylum; BBC; Belgium – Commissariat général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides; Bertelsmann Stiftung; End FGM Canada Network; Erasing 76 Crimes; EU – EU Agency for Asylum; The Five Foundation; France – Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides; Human Rights Watch; International Crisis Group; Journal of LGBT Youth; Médecins sans frontières; Metro; Nigeria – National Human Rights Commission; Norway – Landinfo; OkayAfrica; Orchid Project – 28 Too Many; Outright International; Oxford Human Rights Hub; Pink News; Queer Alliance Nigeria; Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999-2006: A Sourcebook; Switzerland – State Secretariat for Migration; UK – Home Office; UN – Economic and Social Council, Refworld, UNHCR, UN Women, WHO; Where Love Is a Crime; Within Nigeria; Xtra Magazine; Zamfara – Zamfara State Government.