Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Legislation

According to sources, Vietnamese law does not legally protect against discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity (Freedom House 3 Mar. 2021, Sec. F4; COC Netherlands Jan. 2021, 36). Sources add that "societal discrimination" of these communities "remains a problem" (Freedom House 3 Mar. 2021, Sec. F4) or that LGBTIQ individuals are "socially marginalized" (COC Netherlands Jan. 2021, 36). A country information report on Viet Nam by Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) describes [the situation of] LGBTI rights in Viet Nam as "mixed" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.94).

A report by Human Rights Watch (HRW) on impediments to the right to education of LGBT youth [1], states that in 2014 the National Assembly "removed same-sex unions from a list of forbidden relationships," but did not provide for same-sex relationships to be recognized legally (HRW Feb. 2020, 1). Article 8 of the Law on Marriage and Family, updated in 2014 and taking effect 1 January 2015, provides that the "[t]he State shall not recognize marriage between persons of the same sex" (Viet Nam 2014). According to a Country Gender Equality Profile produced by the UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), because same-sex marriage is not legally recognized, same-sex couples living together do not have legal protection or rights (UN [Oct.] 2021, 2021). The DFAT report notes that LGBTI people do not have the right to "same-sex marriage" or to adopt children (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.95).

According to the UN Country Gender Equality Profile, Viet Nam's new Civil Code, passed in 2015, recognized transgender people for the first time (UN [Oct.] 2021, 83). Article 37 of Viet Nam's Civil Code, updated in 2015, provides the following regarding "[s]ex reassignment":

The sex reassignment shall comply with regulations of law. Each surged transgender has the right and obligation to apply for change of civil status affairs as prescribed in law on civil status affairs and has the personal rights in conformity with the transformed gender as prescribed in this Code and relevant laws. (Viet Nam 2015)

The UN Country Gender Equality Profile states that gender-confirmation surgery is permitted for those who self-identify as "intersex," and people in this community can register under their newly assigned sex following their surgery; a transgender person who has not undergone surgery is not permitted to change their name (UN [Oct.] 2021, 83).

The HRW report indicates that the 2015 revision to the Civil Code "did not provide for a transparent and accessible procedure for changing one's legal gender" (HRW Feb. 2020, 1). An article appearing on the website of the Ministry of Health reports that Viet Nam is currently drafting a law on [translation] "gender transformation" (Viet Nam 8 Dec. 2021). Earlier in 2021, however, the UN Country Gender Equality Profile, reported that the draft law—which would "regulate" article 37 of the Civil Code and "facilitat[e]" "hormonal [or] surgical" "medical intervention"—was "stalled after the appraisal stage, leaving the transgender community without formal recognition of their full array of rights" (UN [Oct.] 2021, 202).

Sources report that since the 2015 Civil Code revision and as of the end of 2021, the legislation required to implement the code's changes to the rights of transgender people (UN 10 Dec. 2021), or legislation required to implement the right of an individual who has undergone gender reassignment surgery to register their new status (US 12 Apr. 2022, 40), remained "pending" (UN 10 Dec. 2021; US 12 Apr. 2022, 40). The publication by the UN Resident Coordinator Office (RCO) authored by the Ambassador of Sweden in Viet Nam and the UN Resident Coordinator ad interim in Viet Nam—who collectively co-chair the informal Group of Ambassadors and Heads of Agencies on Gender Policy Coordination—indicates that work was "under way" on legislation regulating how transgender individuals can change their "legal gender marker" but noted that the transgender community's current inability to do so results in a "lack of legal recognition of their gender identity," which "obstructs their effective participation in Viet Nam's society and labour force, and their access to health care" (UN 10 Dec. 2021).

The US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2021 indicates that the law "does not prohibit discrimination against LGBTQI+ persons in housing, employment, nationality laws, or access to government services" (US 12 Apr. 2022, 40). The DFAT report states that the country's Labour Code, revised in 2021, prohibits discrimination in employment on a number of grounds, but does not cover LGBTI rights (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 2.31).

2. Treatment of People of Diverse SOGIESC by Society

The DFAT report indicates that "social stigma and discrimination" against LGBTI people is "common" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.94), and the HRW report notes that "[s]exual and gender minority children and young adults" encounter stigma and discrimination at home and at school (HRW Feb. 2020, 1). The UN RCO publication states that the stigma and discrimination faced by transgender people "can be crippling" (UN 10 Dec. 2021). The DFAT report indicates that "[a]ging LGBTI people" without children "are at particular risk," in light of the role children traditionally play in tending to the elderly in Vietnamese culture (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.97). According to a report by the US Department of State's Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), acceptance of LGBTI+ issues is not "widespread" in Viet Nam (US 5 Aug. 2021, 6). According to a report published, commissioned, and conducted by the Asian Region of the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA Asia) [2], since 2008, public awareness and attitudes regarding "LGBTIQ people have evolved in a positive way," issues affecting the SOGIESC community are "no longer a taboo topic in public discussion," and social support is increasing (ILGA Asia 2021, 8).

The DFAT report provides the following information regarding discrimination faced by various LGBTI communities:

LGBTI people report discrimination as a part of their everyday lives in areas such as healthcare, education and employment, but especially in families. Men or women who are seen as presenting in a way not consistent with traditional gender roles, and especially trans people, face verbal and physical abuse. In-country sources told DFAT that wealthy gay men face the least discrimination but that most LGBTI people, regardless of their wealth and identity, still hide their LGBTI identity in order to avoid discrimination. (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.96)

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an associate professor at Linköping University in Sweden, who researches school bullying, power relations, gender, and sexuality, and who has conducted research in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and Haiphong, indicated that members of sexual and gender minorities are victims of violence in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Associate Professor 24 June 2022). The same source added that transgender people in those cities are "more at risk," since their "perceived deviation from dominant gender and sexual norms is more publicly visible" (Associate Professor 24 June 2022). The same source stated that at home, sexual and gender minorities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City "may be subjected to beatings, exclusion, or forced 'cures' such as medication and spiritual rituals," and added that transgender people specifically may experience "mistreatment at home" (Associate Professor 24 June 2022).

According to a September 2020 UN assessment report on the social and economic impact of COVID-19 in Viet Nam, transgender people are "among the most vulnerable groups due to a high HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) prevalence, poverty levels, discrimination and high risks of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV)" (UN Sept. 2020, 46).

According to the ILGA Asia report, in general social and cultural tolerance of LGBTIQ people in larger cities is greater than in rural areas (ILGA Asia 2021, 8), and the DFAT reports that the situation for LGBTI people is "better" in large cities, where "LGBTI-friendly spaces such as cafes, shops and galleries exist" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.94).

The UN Country Gender Equality Profile states that "conservative attitudes" within Vietnamese society continue to emphasize binary gender roles and "rigid" concepts regarding relationships, family and acceptable self-expression (UN [Oct.] 2021, 200). The HRW report provides the following regarding schools and misinformation concerning sexual orientation and gender identity amongst Viet Nam's youth:

Inaccurate information about sexual orientation and gender identity is pervasive in Vietnam. Some of that is rooted in schools. Vietnam's sex education policies and practices fall short of international standards and do not include mandatory discussion of sexual orientation and gender identity. The central curriculum for schools is also silent on LGBT issues. …

… youth are acutely aware of the pervasive belief that same-sex attraction is a diagnosable mental health condition. …

And even in cases where students did not face verbal or physical abuse, many reported that their families, peers, and teachers implicitly and explicitly enforce heterosexual and cisgender social norms. This occurs in classrooms where teachers refer to anything other than a procreative heterosexual relationship as "unnatural" as well as when parents threaten their children with violence, expulsion, or medical treatment if they turn out to be gay or lesbian. (HRW Feb. 2020, 1–3)

The Associate Professor indicated that there is a "lack of education and information about non-heteronormative sexualities and gender identities" in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, and noted the existence of "discriminatory comments" from school staff (Associate Professor 24 June 2022).

The DFAT report provided the following information concerning the treatment some LGBTI people face from their families and other parties:

Family pressure is strong and many families believe that LGBTI identity can be "cured". LGBTI people may be forced by their families to attend conversion therapy. Lesbians face particular pressure from families. (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.97)

The DFAT report, citing "[i]n-country sources," indicates that, rather than in public spaces, violence against LGBTI people is more likely to occur in a domestic context, "particularly from parents but also among intimate partners" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.99).

The DFAT report indicates that "online hate speech against LGBTI people is common" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.94).

US Country Reports 2021 states that "[s]ome lesbians reported corrective rape and forced marriages" (US 12 Apr. 2022, 40). The DFAT report describes "corrective rape" as "the practice of a man raping a lesbian to 'correct' her sexual and gender identity" and cites in-country sources, who reported that corrective rape "can occur" but that "the often-hidden nature of such crimes makes it impossible to assess how commonly this occurs" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.97).

The DFAT report provides the following information concerning the discrimination facing transgender people, and the related effects on their access to health care and employment:

Discrimination against transgender people may come from people who do not understand the difference between different LGBTI identities, and any person who does not present as traditionally cisgender male or female may simply be seen as "gay" or "queer" and face similar discrimination to other LGBTI people. (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.98)

Freedom House indicates that LGBT+ pride events take place annually in Viet Nam (Freedom House 3 Mar. 2021, Sec. F4), but the DFAT report states that people involved in LGBTI pride events are reported to have experienced "[v]erbal abuse and discrimination or attempts to invade the[ir] privacy" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.99).

According to in-country sources consulted by DFAT, the COVID-19 pandemic has compelled many LGBTI people to "return to their families' homes where they may face discrimination and violence" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.96). The DFAT report cites LGBTI people within and beyond Vietnam who reported "being afraid" to return to their families' homes because of the "risk of violence or family pressure to marry" they would face there (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.97). The results of a 2020 survey [3] by the Institute for Studies of Society, Economy and Environment (iSEE), a Hanoi-based NGO conducting research and advocacy on LGBTI rights (iSEE n.d.), indicate that transgender women have had "the most negative experiences in relationships with their family" during a period of "social distancing" in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic, followed by non-cis individuals (iSEE Aug. 2020, 15). The survey also indicates that "[t]hose who have come out and have not been accepted by their family have [had] more negative experience[s]" in the same period, when compared to the survey's other groups (iSEE Aug. 2020, 16).

2.1 Access to Housing, Employment, and Education

According to the UN RCO publication, one in three transgender women has been evicted or denied rental accommodation (UN 10 Dec. 2021).

The DFAT report provides the following information regarding transgender peoples' access to employment:

Many trans people work in the informal sector where discrimination means that the only work available might be in the entertainment industry. Other trans people can be found in other parts of the economy, working in the formal public and private sectors, but can experience discrimination when applying for or working in those jobs. These workers are not protected by anti-discrimination laws and may experience discrimination or a failure to recognise their gender identity. (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.98)

The Associate Professor indicated that sexual and gender minorities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City are "discriminated against" in employment settings through "non-employment and differential treatment," and added that transgender people there can experience "denial of jobs or promotions" (Associate Professor 24 June 2022). The same source stated that transgender people in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City can experience "ridicule, harassment, bullying at school and in the workplace" (Associate Professor 24 June 2022).

The Associate Professor noted that LGBTIQ2+ students in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City can experience "bullying, harassment and/or social exclusion" in schools (Associate Professor 24 June 2022). The HRW report indicates that "[v]erbal harassment of LGBT students is common in Vietnamese schools," and that students in rural and urban settings, and public and private schools, reported that "many students and teachers use derogatory words to refer to LGBT people, sometimes targeted at them and coupled with threats of violence" (HRW Feb. 2020, 2). The same source indicates that the LGBT youth they consulted "feel stressed due to the bullying and harassment they experience," and added that this stress "affects their ability to study" (HRW Feb. 2020, 3). The HRW report notes that some students reported that "the bullying they faced due to their sexual orientation or gender identity led them to skip or stay home from school" (HRW Feb. 2020, 3).

2.2 Access to Health Care

According to the UN Country Gender Equality Profile, because of "discrimination from caregivers" in health care or because "medical practitioners have little knowledge and are ill-equipped" to treat the needs of transgender and LGBTQI people, there is a lack of facilities or services friendly to these communities (UN [Oct.] 2021, 83). The Associate Professor indicated that sexual and gender minorities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City do not have "adequate access" to "LGBTIQ2+ friendly" health care facilities or services, and experience "ridicule, harassment, and denial of treatment" (Associate Professor 24 June 2022).

The DFAT report notes that, "in practice," transgender people "may be unable to access trans-appropriate healthcare" such as gender-affirming surgery, or "may not have their gender identity recognized" by health care providers (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.98). According to the UN Country Gender Equality Profile, gender-confirmation surgery is "extremely risky" in Viet Nam, and this has resulted in some transgender people "self-injecting cheap and impure chemicals leading to serious harm and even fatalities" (UN [Oct.] 2021, 83).

The UN RCO publication indicates that nearly 87 percent of transgender men and 75 percent of transgender women have "had to change their physical appearance in ways that do not align with their identity" (UN 10 Dec. 2021). The same source adds that rates of depression and suicidal thoughts are "much higher" amongst transgender individuals compared with the national average, adding that roughly 40 percent of transgender people "reported having suicidal thoughts," approximately half of whom "attempted suicide" (UN 10 Dec. 2021).

The UN assessment report indicates that transgender people "often do not have health insurance" and that they are "usually ineligible for income subsidies," owing to not having a legal identity and registered residence as well as working "informal occupations" which are "not legally recognized" (UN Sept. 2020, 46). The 2020 iSEE survey results indicate that "psychological support" was the "most commonly recognized need" among respondents, with 73.4 percent indicating it is the type of support they "expected most" post-COVID-19 (iSEE Aug. 2020, 23, 26).

According to an article by VNExpress International, a ["state-sanctioned" (HRW Feb. 2022, 12)] English-language news website in Viet Nam, hormone therapy is not available by prescription for transgender people, and they must instead "rely on unprescribed hormones that often cause a host of side-effects" (VNExpress International 9 June 2020). The same source, citing information from the Center for Supporting Community Development Initiatives (SCDI) [4], adds that 70 percent of the 300,000 to 500,000 transgender people in Viet Nam use hormones purchased from acquaintances, the Internet, or the black market (VNExpress International 9 June 2020).

The VNExpress International article cites a medical doctor and lecturer at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Ho Chi Minh City, who states that several hospitals have created treatment clinics specifically designed to serve the LGBTQ community (VNExpress International 9 June 2020).

3. Support Services

According to the ILGA Asia report, while civil social organizations in Viet Nam are "closely" "controlled" by the government, "at the present time" the government is "more open" to these organizations working on issues pertaining to health and LGBTIQ matters (ILGA Asia 2021, 6). The DFAT report indicates that Viet Nam's civil society organizations are "constitutionally protected … but heavily restricted in practice," and notes that organizations focused on "less sensitive subjects," including LGBTI groups, are "relatively free to operate" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.68).

The UN Country Gender Equality Profile indicates that there are "countless" community-based LGBTQI organizations nationwide, and provides the following information about them:

These organizations and their focus are noticeably diverse, ranging from organizational models (e.g. online fanpages, volunteer groups, social enterprises, informal networks) to target groups (gay, lesbian, transgender, bisexual, LGBTQI students, LGBTQI parents and families) and the promotion of specific interests (policy advocacy, public awareness raising, community building, and inclusive healthcare services[)]. (UN [Oct.] 2021, 201)

The ILGA Asia report notes that there is "hardly any evidence of official registration" of civil service organizations "working on human rights issues" that can register as tax-exempt NGOs; "many" of these organizations must instead register as "limited or social companies providing social and/or healthcare services" and have any donations they receive subject to taxation, thereby discouraging such donations (ILGA Asia 2021, 6–7). The ILGA Asia report also notes that a "lack of human resources and organisational capacity" has contributed to some organizations "struggling" to register as a non-profit organization or a social enterprise, which prevents them accessing funding directly from donors (ILGA Asia 2021, 6).

According to the UN assessment report, "[p]sychosocial support" for LGBTI people and survivors of gender-based violence was interrupted during the COVID-19 pandemic (UN Sept. 2020, 11).

3.1 Hanoi

iSEE's website indicates that it is located in Hanoi and states that it "[c]onduct[s] background research," engages in "policy advocacy," and offers "open trainings and events" concerning LGBTIQ rights as part of its effort to "change social awareness" and "empower the LGBTIQ community" (iSEE n.d.).

According to information available on the website of Aidsfonds [5], Lighthouse Social Enterprise (Lighthouse) is a "community-based organisation led by and working with [the] LGBTI [youth] community in Vietnam," and provides "direct services to improve access and utilisation of sexual and mental health care" (Aidsfonds n.d.c). Lighthouse's Facebook page indicates that the organization is located in Hanoi (Lighthouse n.d.).

The website of the Southeast Asia Queer Cultural Festival (SEAQCF) [6] indicates that Hanoi Queer is a community-based organization focused on the equality and safety of queer people in Hanoi, and which seeks to improve social attitudes towards the LGBTQ community (SEAQCF n.d.a).

3.2 Ho Chi Minh City

According to its website, ICS, which is located in Ho Chi Minh City, was first founded in 2008 by iSEE, as a project "working towards a positive image of [LGBT people] in Vietnam," and that it developed into ICS Center in 2011 (ICS Center n.d.). Its activities include "training, organizing seminars and events, providing advisory services, or offering courses about capacity building and empowerment for the LGBTI+ community" (ICS Center n.d.).

According to information available on its website, the Center for Applied Research for Men and Community Health (CARMAH) is a Ho Chi Minh City-based NGO "of, by, and for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning (or: queer), intersex" people (CARMAH n.d.). The website notes that CARMAH's activities include "[c]onduct[ing] high-quality research and evaluations," "[c]ollaborat[ing] … with Vietnamese and international partners," "[c]ultivat[ing] relationships of mutual trust and understanding with the LGBTI communities," and actively working with the LGBTI community (CARMAH n.d.).

Information available on the website of the International Trans Fund (ITF) [7] states that FTM Vietnam Organization is an organization focused on "connect[ing] the nationwide transgender community" and whose activities include "provid[ing] information, knowledge, and advice" organizing support groups, engaging in advocacy efforts, and providing "supportive counseling on healthcare, public law, and other subjects to the female-to-male transgender community" (ITF [2020]). The same source adds that FTM Vietnam is "developing a network and currently working with male-to-female transgender groups, healthcare service providers, law service providers, LGBQI+ grassroots groups, allies and PFLAG groups [which support families and friends of people of diverse SOGIESC]" (ITF [2020]).

4. Treatment of People of Diverse SOGIESC by Authorities

The DFAT report indicates that LGBTI issues are not viewed by the government as a "particularly sensitive topic" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.95). The same source adds that LGBTI people experience "relative freedom from official interference" and LGBTI civil society organizations are "relatively free in their operation" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.94). The ILGA Asia report notes that "for a long time, LGBTIQ rights activists have been seen as posing no political threats to the central government" (ILGA Asia 2021, 11).

In contrast, the Associate Professor stated that there have been "numerous examples" of sexual and gender minorities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City "being subjected to intimidation, harassment, and abuse by the police" (Associate Professor 24 June 2022). Further and corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the DFAT report, LGBTI people must complete required military service, and the report cites sources indicating that in the military there is a "culture of denial of LGBTI people" (Australia 11 Jan. 2022, para. 3.100).

Information on treatment by the police, as well as treatment by authorities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City specifically, could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

5. State Protection

According to the Associate Professor, although sexual and gender minorities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City should be able to receive protection from the state in theory, this is not the case in practice (Associate Professor 24 June 2022). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a representative of Lighthouse indicated that, in practice, state protection of sexual and gender minorities in Hanoi is "poor" (Lighthouse 25 June 2022).

The HRW report indicates that in cases of verbal or physical abuse of LGBT youth at Vietnamese schools, there is a "lack of consistent response from school staff," resulting in a "lack of confidence among students that there are mechanisms in place to address cases of violence and discrimination" (HRW Feb. 2020, 2).

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, representatives of the Viet Nam Mission of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), indicated that an adult child pursued by their parents would, in principle, be able to seek protection from the police the same as any person "under threat [or] harm" (UN 30 May 2022). The representatives added that this "should be the case" in all cities and provinces nationwide, and that police will review such cases, assessing the "severity of the situation, etc.," to determine "appropriate protection measures and/or make referrals to [the] right entities" (UN 30 May 2022). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an economist at Vietnam National University, Hanoi's Vietnam Japan University who researches poverty, welfare, migration, and family relations in Viet Nam stated that if a child is older than 18, their parents "have no legal right to force the child to do anything," and the child can seek protection from the police in cases where their parents have "threaten[ed]" them or "do something to [them] violently" (Economist 12 June 2022). The same source added, however, that this "rarely happens and the police may not intervene unless" they have a "serious concern" that the parents' pursuit of the child poses a risk to the child's "health or life" (Economist 12 June 2022).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] The report draws on 59 interviews conducted between May 2018 and March 2019, including 12 interviews with "children under age 18 identified as sexual or gender minorities," 40 interviews "with sexual and gender minorities ages 18-23" who commented on their experiences as children, and 7 interviews with teachers, school staff, and parents (HRW Feb. 2020, 7).

[2] The report was commissioned and conducted by the Asian Region of the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA Asia), which represents over 100 Asian member organizations, including organizations in Viet Nam (ILGA Asia n.d.), from November 2020 to January 2021 (ILGA Asia 2021, 1). The name of the lead consultant of the report is undisclosed (ILGA Asia 2021, 1). In preparing the report, ILGA Asia conducted interviews with leaders of eight local organizations (ILGA Asia 2021, 2), including three based in Hanoi (the Institute for Studies of Society, Economy and Environment [iSEE]; Lighthouse; Ha Noi Queer) and four based in Ho Chi Minh City (ICS; CARMAH; Female-to-male Vietnam; Jessica Band) (ILGA Asia 2021, 4).

[3] The survey on the impact of COVID-19 on the LGBTI+ community in Vietnam, by the Institute for Studies of Society, Economy and Environment 2020 (iSEE) was disseminated in May 2020 through the organization's official Facebook page and the websites and social media pages of LGBT groups (iSEE Aug. 2020, 3). Its results are based on 923 "complete answers" to the survey, including from 371 residents of Ho Chi Minh City and 253 residents of Hanoi (iSEE Aug. 2020, 3).

[4] The Center for Supporting Community Development Initiatives (SCDI) is a Viet Nam-based NGO focused on vulnerable and disadvantaged populations (SCDI n.d.).

[5] Aidsfonds is a Netherlands-based registered charity focused on supporting people living with HIV and AIDS (Aidsfonds n.d.a); it has partners around the world (Aidsfonds n.d.b), including Lighthouse in Viet Nam (n.d.c).

[6] The Southeast Asia Queer Cultural Festival (SEAQCF) is organized by ASEAN SOGIE Caucus (ASC), a network of Southeast Asian human rights activists which is in Special Consultative Status with the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (SEAQCF n.d.b).

[7] The International Trans Fund (ITF) is a "participatory grantmaking fund made up of trans activists and donors" (ITF n.d.).

References

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Aidsfonds. N.d.c. "Lighthouse." [Accessed 21 June 2022]

Associate Professor, Linköping University, Sweden. 24 June 2022. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Australia. 11 January 2022. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT). DFAT Country Information Report: Vietnam. [Accessed 9 May 2022]

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COC Netherlands. January 2021. A Context Analysis on the State of the LGBTI Movement in Vietnam. [Accessed 9 June 2022]

Economist, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam Japan University. 12 June 2022. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

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Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Center for Applied Research for Men and Community Health; Center for Creative Initiatives in Health and Population; FTM Vietnam Organization; Hanoi Queer; ICS Center; Institute for Studies of Society, Economy and Environment; International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association – Asian Region; PFLAG Vietnam; UN – UNICEF, Office on Drugs and Crime.

Internet sites, including: Al Jazeera; Amnesty International; Austrian Red Cross – ecoi.net; Belgium – Commissariat général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides; Bertelsmann Stiftung; Center for Creative Initiatives in Health and Population; EU – EU Agency for Asylum; Factiva; Fédération internationale pour les droits humains; Financial Times; France – Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides; FTM Vietnam Organization; Hanoi Queer; Reuters; South China Morning Post; Switzerland – State Secretariat for Migration; Vietnam News Agency.