In 2020, Ethiopia made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. Under the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178, the government overhauled its national counter-trafficking framework, amending penalties for debt bondage, slavery, human trafficking, and certain forms of child labor and sexual exploitation. With external support, the Ministry of Education also announced a school feeding project benefiting 163,021 pre-primary and primary-age students in five regional states. In addition, the Ministry of Labor collaborated with the ILO to develop a digital inspection system, which was completed in 2020. However, children in Ethiopia continue to be subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in forced labor in domestic work and in commercial sexual exploitation. The law in Ethiopia does not include free basic education or a compulsory age for education, leaving children vulnerable to the worst forms of child labor. Social programs to combat child labor have also not sufficiently targeted sectors with high incidences of child labor.
Children in Ethiopia are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including forced labor in domestic work and commercial sexual exploitation. (1-4) According to the results of a 2015 national child labor survey published in 2018, almost 16 million children from the ages of 5 to 17 engaged in child labor. A majority of these children were found in the regions of Oromia, Amhara, and the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR). (5) The Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency (CSA) did not collect data on child labor during the reporting period. However, the CSA, UNICEF Ethiopia, and the Center for Evaluation and Development published a report entitled "Child Labor Analysis in Ethiopia 2020." (6,7) The report supplemented CSA's 2015 Ethiopia National Child Labor Survey with new data on hard-to-reach children working in urban areas. (6,7) Table 1 provides key indicators on children's work and education in Ethiopia.
Children |
Age |
Percent |
---|---|---|
Working (% and population) |
7 to 14 |
41.5 (10,202,669) |
Attending School (%) |
7 to 14 |
73.1 |
Combining Work and School (%) |
7 to 14 |
30.8 |
Primary Completion Rate (%) |
54.1 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2015, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2021. (8)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization’s analysis of statistics from Socio Economic Survey (ESS 3), 2015–2016. (9)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
Sector/Industry |
Activity |
---|---|
Agriculture |
Planting and harvesting apples, bananas, coffee, cotton, khat, and sesame (5,10-15) |
Herding livestock, including cattle (16) |
|
Fishing (2,5) |
|
Industry |
Mining gold† and quarrying† (5,10,17) |
Construction,† including carrying heavy loads and digging (2,5,12) |
|
Repairing motor vehicles and motorcycles (5) |
|
Producing handicrafts, including pottery and traditional handwoven textiles (2,5,10,18) |
|
Services |
Domestic work (5,11,12,19) |
Unpaid household services, including carrying heavy loads of water and firewood (5,10,19) |
|
Street work, including shoe shining, assisting taxi drivers, vending, portering, and begging (5,6,10,20,21) |
|
Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ |
Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (3,6,12,20,22,23) |
Forced labor in domestic work, herding, street vending, construction, and traditional weaving of handwoven textiles, each sometimes as a result of human trafficking (6,10,24-26) |
|
Recruitment of children by non-state armed groups for use in armed conflict (6,17) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Ethiopian children voluntarily travel to Amhara, a region bordering a key irregular migration route to Europe, to harvest sesame. This sector is allegedly linked to overland smuggling networks, with children earning enough to fund passage to Europe via North Africa. (14,15) Many others journey through Djibouti en route to Persian Gulf states, where they are often intercepted, repatriated, and later routed to a transition center in Addis Ababa. (14) Somaliland intercepts between 50 and 100 children a week, many under the age of 13, from Amhara and Oromia on their way to the Middle East. (14,27) Children who begin as voluntary migrants may be forced into commercial sexual exploitation, or become victims of forced labor. (22,23) Research on child trafficking victims from SNNPR and Oromia indicates that 85 percent were rescued from or escaped domestic work, while 2/3 suffered exploitation and abuse. While 55 percent of the surveyed children were sent to Addis Ababa by family, another 11 percent were actively exploited by brokers within their communities. (26) The children surveyed were mostly from families that continue to play a role in financing and coercing their children to go abroad or to urban areas to look for work. (22,25,28) Trusted community members, known as manamasas, recruit and groom vulnerable youth on behalf of local and international human trafficking syndicates. (23,29) Traffickers also exploit children from rural areas surrounding Addis Ababa and other regions of the country for forced labor in the weaving industry, street vending, construction, and domestic work. (10,23,25) Traffickers exploit Ethiopian girls in commercial sex and domestic servitude in neighboring countries. (23) In addition, children in Oromia and Amhara reportedly harvest and sell khat, a stimulant to which they may become addicted due to bodily contact with the plants’ excretions during harvest. (12,14) The plant releases two highly addictive central nervous system stimulants – cathinone and cathine – whose acute and long-term neurological effects include khat-induced psychosis. (13,14)
In November 2020, a conflict erupted in northern Tigray between government forces and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF); the conflict is ongoing. (30) By early December, more than 45,000 Ethiopians fleeing the war had crossed into Sudan, up to one-half of whom were children. (30) Hundreds of children crossed the border alone, leaving them vulnerable to labor exploitation and human trafficking. Moreover, unconfirmed reporting indicates the TPLF has recruited children, most of them teenagers, during the conflict. (6,17,30,31) Reports on the Tigray conflict also indicate sexual and gender-based violence is being used against women and girls. (32,33) At least 200 rape victims under the age of 18 were admitted to local hospitals in January; the majority reported that perpetrators wore Ethiopian army uniforms. (34) A military blockade has also disrupted emergency humanitarian aid distribution networks. (33,34) As a result of the ongoing violence in Tigray, some 2.3 million children in the region lack access to humanitarian assistance, and 1.3 million were unable to attend school. (6,35,36) In addition, 12,000 children who fled to Sudan to escape the conflict in Tigray had no access to education other than makeshift classrooms set up by NGOs operating across the border. (17,37)
Precise figures are in dispute, although the UN and other humanitarian organizations estimate that 1.1 million children were displaced in 2020, 66 percent due to armed conflict. (12,35,36,38) Ethnic unrest was also recorded in Oromia, Amhara, and SNNPR, and research suggests the Oromo Liberation Army-Shane may have recruited child soldiers. (6,39)
In 2020, COVID-19 pandemic-induced school closures affected an estimated 26 million children, 77% of whom are of primary school age. (17,40) With infrastructure for remote learning effectively non-existent, many children remained out of school for many months, and some have still not returned. These children are acutely vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, including child labor. (17,40) Armed conflicts and resulting humanitarian crises have also disrupted education in other parts of the country. Children in rural areas face additional barriers to education, including the distance they must travel to reach school; a lack of sanitation, which especially affects adolescent girls; sexual harassment; the requirement to pay for uniforms and supplies; and a lack of teachers. Somali and Afar regions had the lowest rates of school attendance, with only 38.6 percent of school-age children enrolled in the Somali region and 50.2 percent enrolled in the Afar region. (5,6,41) Armed elements, including the TPLF and the Ethiopian National Defense Force, targeted schools in Tigray with rocket and artillery fire. Non-state armed groups in Tigray and the western part of Oromia also occupied schools for military purposes. (12,27,42,43) These factors increase children’s risk of entering the workforce at a young age. (11,12,36,41)
Ethiopia has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
Convention |
Ratification |
---|---|
ILO C. 138, Minimum Age |
✓ |
ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor |
✓ |
UN CRC |
✓ |
UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict |
✓ |
UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography |
✓ |
Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons |
✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Ethiopia’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including free and compulsory education.
Standard |
Meets International Standards |
Age |
Legislation |
---|---|---|---|
Minimum Age for Work |
Yes |
14 |
Articles 4.1, 89.1–89.2,89.3, and 185 of the Labor Proclamation 1156/2019 (44) |
Minimum Age for Hazardous Work |
No |
18 |
Article 36.1(d) of the Constitution; Articles 89.3–89.4 of the Labor Proclamation 1156/2019 (44,45) |
Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children |
Yes |
Articles 89.3–89.4, and 186.1 of the Labor Proclamation 1156/2019; Directive on Prohibited Occupations for Young Workers (44,46) |
|
Prohibition of Forced Labor |
Yes |
Article 18.3 of the Constitution; Article 596 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.2, and 4.1–4.3 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 (45,47,48) |
|
Prohibition of Child Trafficking |
Yes |
Article 18.2 of the Constitution; Articles 597, 635, 636, and 637 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.5 and 4.1 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 (45,47-49) |
|
Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children |
Yes |
Articles 634–636 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.5 and 4.1 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 (47,48) |
|
Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities |
Yes |
Article 525 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.2 and 4.1–4.3 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 (47,48) |
|
Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment |
Yes |
18‡ |
Article 270 of the Criminal Code (47) |
Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military |
N/A* |
||
Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups |
No |
Articles 3.1–3.2 and 4.1–4.3 of the Proclamation to Provide for the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants (48) |
|
Compulsory Education Age |
No |
||
Free Public Education |
No |
* No conscription (47)
‡ Age calculated based on available information (6)
In February 2020, the government enacted the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178, and the law was published in April. (29,48) The proclamation amends penalties for commercial sexual exploitation of children, child trafficking, and certain forms of child labor exploitation. (6,48) However, under the new law, the recruitment of children by non-state armed forces is not criminalized.. (48) Moreover, not all Ethiopian laws related to child labor are in compliance with international standards. The types of hazardous work prohibited for children do not cover traditional weaving, an area of work in which there is evidence that children use dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools, and lift or transport heavy loads. (44,46) Moreover, Article 89.5 of the Labor Proclamation allows children ages 15 to 16 to engage in certain forms of hazardous work following the completion of a government-approved and inspected vocational training course. This contradicts ILO C. 138, which prohibits hazardous work for all children under age 16. (44,50) The Government of Ethiopia notes that, in practice, children begin apprenticeships after the completion of 10th grade, typically at age 16 or 17. (51) The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA) is currently revising the accompanying Directive on Prohibited Occupations for Young Workers; research has not determined whether this will extend further protections to young workers. (12,17) Finally, Ethiopia does not have a minimum compulsory education age, and its laws do not provide for free public education. (6)
The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the authority of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws, including financial resource allocation.
Organization/Agency |
Role |
---|---|
Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA) |
Conducts labor inspections of formal worksites through its regional Bureaus of Labor and Social Affairs. (12) Through its National Referral Mechanism (NRM), coordinates victim referral to social services providers. (28) |
Ethiopian Federal Police Commission |
Enforces criminal laws against the worst forms of child labor, including child trafficking and the commercial sexual exploitation of children. (12) Combats child trafficking and assists vulnerable children through its Special Child Protection Units in Addis Ababa and other major cities. (12,24,52) Refers cases to the Ministry of Women, Children, and Youth (MoWCY), which develops and implements programs to protect vulnerable children and monitor alleged violations of child protection laws, including the worst forms of child labor. (1,53) MoWCY also maintains rehabilitation centers and coordinates foster families for children rescued from the worst forms of child labor. (12) |
Office of the Attorney General |
Prosecutes criminal violations of child labor laws, including through its Special Investigative Unit for Women and Children. (12) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2020, labor law enforcement agencies in Ethiopia took actions to combat child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the authority of MOLSA that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including financial and human resource allocation.
Overview of Labor Law Enforcement |
2019 |
2020 |
---|---|---|
Labor Inspectorate Funding |
$220,673 (12) |
$153,000 (17) |
Number of Labor Inspectors |
685 (12) |
621 (17) |
Inspectorate Authorized to Assess Penalties |
No (12,44) |
No (6,17,44) |
Initial Training for New Labor Inspectors |
No (12) |
Yes (17) |
Training on New Laws Related to Child Labor |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
Refresher Courses Provided |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
Number of Labor Inspections Conducted |
41,738 (12) |
43,360 (17) |
Number Conducted at Worksite |
41,738 (12) |
43,360 (17) |
Number of Child Labor Violations Found |
Unknown (12) |
3 (17) |
Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (17) |
Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (17) |
Routine Inspections Conducted |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
Routine Inspections Targeted |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
Unannounced Inspections Permitted |
Yes (44) |
Yes (44) |
Unannounced Inspections Conducted |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
Complaint Mechanism Exists |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (12) |
Yes (17) |
The government imposed a state of emergency in March and April of 2020 to mitigate community transmission of COVID-19. To protect inspectors and workers, MOLSA only conducted complaint-based inspections during this period. (17) In 2020, labor inspections focused on the construction, mining, and agricultural sectors, including the floricultural industry, in which child labor is known to occur; the government also conducted on-site inspection in local languages. Nevertheless, data on violations are not aggregated at the national level, and the government did not publish the number of child labor violations identified as a result of these inspections. (4,12,17) Labor inspectors refer child labor violations to judicial authorities, who are able to assess penalties. (6,44) During the reporting period, however, the government did not provide information on prosecutions or convictions related to child labor. (17)
Although the total number of labor inspectors dropped from the previous reporting period, the inspectorate hired 74 new labor inspectors in 2020, bringing the total number of inspectors to 621. (17) In 2020, the government began to implement a strategy to automate and digitalize inspection workplace systems. MOLSA collaborated with ILO to develop a digital inspection system, which was completed in 2020. (6) Implementation is planned for 2021. (17) With support from the German Society for International Cooperation, the labor inspectorate provided Training-of-Trainers (ToT) sessions on the 2019 Labor Proclamation and the use of labor inspection monitoring equipment. The ToT trainings were provided three times during the reporting period. (17)
However, the number of labor inspectors remains insufficient for the size of Ethiopia's workforce, which includes 52.8 million workers. According to the ILO's technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 40,000 workers in less developed economies, Ethiopia would employ about 1,321 inspectors. (54,55) In addition, MOLSA and other stakeholders report that a lack of resources and poor coordination among agencies hampered their ability to enforce child labor laws. (4,12)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2020, criminal law enforcement agencies in Ethiopia took actions to combat child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including collecting and publishing enforcement statistics.
Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement |
2019 |
2020 |
---|---|---|
Initial Training for New Criminal Investigators |
Yes (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Training on New Laws Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Refresher Courses Provided |
Yes (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Number of Investigations |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Number of Violations Found |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Number of Prosecutions Initiated |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Number of Convictions |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to The Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Unknown (12) |
Unknown (6,17) |
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (12) |
Yes (6) |
The 2020 Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation stipulates aggravated penalties for criminal convictions involving children for a number of offenses, including debt bondage, slavery, human trafficking, and certain forms of labor and sexual exploitation. (48) Under the new legislation, crimes against a child or a mentally ill or physically disabled person carry sentences of 10–20 years and a fine of $742–$2,472 (30,000–100,000 birr). (26,48) Moreover, for the first time in 20 years, the Attorney General’s Office disaggregated prosecution datasets for transnational and internal trafficking-in-persons violations. However, the government did not otherwise provide criminal law enforcement data for inclusion in this report. (4,12,23) Enforcement efforts continued to focus on transnational human trafficking for the purpose of forced labor, to the detriment of internal human trafficking, including trafficking children for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation. (23)
Ethiopian immigration and border patrol authorities refer human trafficking victims to NGO-run shelters, in which victims are given first aid and assistance to return home. Although the shelters do not disaggregate data for children, NGOs reported that many of those receiving services were younger than age 18, some of whom may have been returning from the Persian Gulf States. (28)
The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including coordination between agencies.
Coordinating Body |
Role & Description |
---|---|
National Steering Committees |
Include the National Steering Committee on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, which coordinates activities on the worst forms of child labor. Members include MOLSA, the MoWCY, and the Ministry of Education. (4,22) The National Steering Committee Against Sexual Abuse and Exploitation of Children also develops action plans and coordinates activities to combat the commercial sexual exploitation of children. (22,53) The committee was not active during the reporting period. (56) |
MOLSA National Forum to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Combats the worst forms of child labor at the national level. The forum was not active during the reporting period. (4,6,56) |
National Anti-Human Trafficking and Smuggling Mechanisms |
The government overhauled its national counter-trafficking framework during the reporting period. (26) Under Proclamation 1178/2020, the new structure organizes over 32 government and non-government entities into the National Council and the National Partnership Coalition (NPC). The National Council is responsible for the creation of policies and strategies for the prevention of smuggling and trafficking in persons and issuing directives. (26) The Deputy Prime Minister chairs the Council, which includes representatives from the Federal Attorney General's Office, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Peace, MOLSA, the Refugees and Returnees Affairs Agency, MoWCY, the Commission of Job Creation, the Ministry of Health, the Federal Police Commission, the National Bank, the Central Statistics Agency, the National Intelligence and Security Services, Regional Governments, the Civil Societies Agency, and religious institutions. (26) In 2020, the Council passed the directive for NRM, which establishes the legislation underpinning the NRM's implementation. (26) The NPC, meanwhile, is accountable to the National Council. Its mandate includes researching polices and strategies, developing directives for the national referral system, and preparing program and action plans for implementation. (26) The NPC also oversees ten working groups that specialize in multiple anti-trafficking in persons sectors, including a Women and Children Support and Protection Working Group. (26) The government's efforts are supplemented by IOM-funded community awareness centers and by the German Society for International Cooperation's Better Migration Management Project, which is focused on capacity building. (29) |
National and Regional Task Forces on Orphans and Vulnerable Children |
Promote children's rights; chaired by members of the federal government and state ministers and led by the MoWCY in all nine regional capitals and two city administrations. (53,57) Research was unable to determine whether task forces were active during the reporting period. |
Limited committee budgets, overlapping mandates, and poor coordination between the committees and agencies hindered coordination efforts to address child labor at a national and regional level. (22,28)
The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including implementation.
Policy |
Description |
---|---|
National Education and Children's Policies |
Promote children's rights and combat child trafficking, commercial sexual exploitation, and the worst forms of child labor. The National Children's Policy facilitates access to quality primary and secondary education for out-of-school youth, including in rural areas, and provides measures against exploitation and trafficking in persons. (58) National policies to improve access to quality education include the Education Sector Development Program V (2015–2020), which aimed to improve attendance rates and learning outcomes through enhanced equity, access, quality, and efficiency; the Ethiopian Education Development Roadmap (2018–2030), which aims to make education free and compulsory; the Education and Training Policy, which prioritizes government support for education through grade 10; the Pastoralist Area Education Strategy, which provides for alternative education in pastoralist communities; and the National Technical & Vocational Education & Training Strategy, which aims to improve access to vocational education for girls and out-of-school children. (41,59-62) The government has not included child labor elimination and prevention strategies in the Education Sector Development Program, the National Technical & Vocational Education & Training Strategy, or the National Youth Policy. (60-62) |
National Action Plan to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2016–2020) |
Includes guidelines on child labor identification, withdrawal, reintegration, and educational policies. Overseen by the National Steering Committee on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. (4) In 2020, labor inspectors received training on a digital workplace inspection system, with implementation planned for 2021. (17) |
The United Nations Development Assistance Framework (2016–2020) |
Promoted improved access to education and livelihood services for vulnerable children. Sought to protect children from abuse, violence, and exploitation, and to rehabilitate victims of violence and exploitation. (64) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement this policy during the reporting period. |
National Human Rights Action Plan II (2016–2020) |
Aimed to promote human rights in line with Ethiopia's second Growth and Transformation Plan. Objectives included the creation of detailed manuals on crime investigation, combating both domestic and international trafficking in persons, and improving the ability of civil society organizations to secure local funding towards these objectives. (65,66) The plan also covered human rights violations in the private sector and encouraged private sector companies to undertake human rights due diligence to prevent child labor, forced labor, and other human rights violations. (65,66) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement this policy during the reporting period. |
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (53,67-72)
In 2019, Ethiopia became a Pathfinder country under Alliance 8.7. This involves accelerating progress toward achieving commitments under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 8.7, which calls for the eradication of child labor by 2025, and the elimination of forced labor, modern slavery, and human trafficking by 2030. (73) To this end, in 2020, Ethiopia’s Minister of Labor and Social Affairs attended a virtual conference with SDG Alliance 8.7 Pathfinder countries, during which she shared Ethiopia's pandemic tripartite workplace response protocol. (17) The minister also spoke at the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development, which took place in July 2020 under the auspices of the Economic and Security Council. The aim of the meeting was to develop effective measures to eradicate forced labor, end modern slavery and human trafficking, secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labor, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and, by 2025, end child labor in all its forms. (6)
In 2020, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including adequacy of programs to address the full scope of the problem.
Program |
Description |
---|---|
Government of Ethiopia Programs*† |
In 2020, the Ministry of Education announced a school feeding project benefiting 163,021 pre-primary and primary school students in 499 schools in 5 regional states. The project targets Oromia, Amhara, Sidama, Somali, and Afar, and its goal is to improve attendance and learning. (17) The Global Partnership for Education, a USAID partner, provided $21.4 million for the project, which will be implemented by Save the Children. (17) The government also allocated $48,223,349 (1.9 billion birr) to the same regions to feed 1.4 million students. (17) In 2020, the Addis Ababa City Administration also provided meals, books, and writing equipment to more than 300,000 students. (6) In an effort to address the challenge of lack of food, some schools instituted school feeding programs. Separately, the government established an initiative to provide temporary shelter for destitute urban children. At the direction of Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, the government set aside two hectares of land in Akaki Kality Sub City; the Tewodros Ashenafi Foundation then provided $634,357 (25 million birr) for the construction of a transitional shelter with a holding capacity of 2,000 children. (6) The Foundation handed over management of the facility to the Addis Ababa Bureau of Labor and Social Affairs in May 2020. (17) The shelter provides basic services, including psychosocial support, life skills, and education and training, to enable children's reintegration into society. The initiative is part of Ethiopia's national reform agenda. (6,17) |
World Vision Programs |
Includes Effective Approaches in Ending the Worst Forms of Child Labor (EAPEC) (2019–2022), an international program designed to test and measure innovative approaches to reduce the worst forms of child labor, targets approximately 500,000 at-risk youth in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, and Ethiopia, including victims of child commercial sexual exploitation and child soldiering, and children engaged in hazardous work. The program's efforts are coordinated by World Vision, with funding by a consortium of NGOs and multilaterals, including UN Global Compact, the Global Compact UK, War Child UK, Thompson Reuters, and the private sector. (14,74,75) In 2020, World Vision expanded training programs designed to build detection capacity to all nine regional governments. The NGO trained regional labor inspector team leads to operate monitoring equipment. (17) In addition, World Vision is working directly with Ethiopia's nine regional governments to incorporate child labor issues into their action plans. (14) |
World Bank-Funded Projects† |
Includes ET Productive Safety Nets Project 4 (PSNP 4) (2014–2020)†, a $2.77 billion project that aimed to improve access to social safety nets, including cash and in-kind transfers to orphans and vulnerable children. As of December 2020, 8,300,000 individuals had benefited from the program. (76,77-81) The Ethiopia General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (GEQIP-E) (2017–2022)† is a $300 million program that works with the Ministry of Education to improve education quality and access. (82-77) GEQIP-E worked with the Ministry of Education to create budget lines for school grants and textbooks. (78,79) The World Bank approved the Urban Productive Safety Net and Jobs Project (2020–2025)* on September 30, 2020. The project will target disadvantaged youth and the urban poor through labor market inclusion programs, including 6 month apprenticeship programs. (17,84) |
UNICEF-Funded Programs |
Includes UNICEF-funded programs to improve social safety nets and improve access to education include Child-to-Child and Accelerated School Readiness programs, which extend educational opportunities to internally displaced children, and the Integrated Safety Nets Program (2017–2023). (12,85) UNICEF, the Swedish International Development Agency, and MOLSA are also jointly funding the Urban Productive Safety Net Program, which aims to improve nutritional and educational outcomes in Amhara and Addis Ababa through cash transfers and linking participants to basic social services. (12,86) In 2020, UNICEF educational services reached 1 in 5 vulnerable children in Ethiopia, providing them with early learning, informal, and non-formal educational services. (7,35) |
USDOL-Funded Project* |
Includes She Thrives: Reducing Child Labor in Ethiopia's Agricultural Sector using a Gender-Focused Approach (2020-2025), a $5 million USDOL-funded, 4 year project implemented by Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, Inc. to use a gender mainstreaming approach to address child labor in coffee production in Oromia and the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region. (87) Additional information is available on the USDOL website. |
* Program was launched during the reporting period.
† Program is co-funded by the Government of Ethiopia. (17,18)
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (88,89)
Although the government participates in and implements several programs to combat child labor, these programs do not sufficiently target sectors with high incidences of child labor, such as agriculture and domestic work. (4) There is also a paucity of rehabilitation and reintegration centers throughout the country for victims of child trafficking or commercial sexual exploitation. (3,22) Moreover, both government and NGO-run shelters were unable to accept referrals of vulnerable children during the first months of the pandemic because they had to create separate areas for newcomers to quarantine. (6)
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Ethiopia (Table 11).
Area |
Suggested Action |
Year(s) Suggested |
---|---|---|
Legal Framework |
Raise the minimum age at which children may enter hazardous work following vocational training from age 15 to age 16, in line with ILO C. 138. |
2009 – 2020 |
Ensure that the types of hazardous work prohibited for children are comprehensive, including hazardous tasks in traditional weaving. |
2016 – 2020 |
|
Criminalize the recruitment of children by non-state armed groups. |
2020 |
|
Establish by law free basic education. |
2012 – 2020 |
|
Establish by law a compulsory education age, and ensure that the age is consistent with the minimum age of employment. |
2012 – 2020 |
|
Enforcement |
Strengthen the labor inspectorate by permitting labor inspectors to assess penalties. |
2013 – 2020 |
Increase the number of labor inspectors to meet the ILO's technical advice. |
2015 – 2020 |
|
Ensure that labor inspectors have sufficient resources to conduct inspections in all sectors and are able to coordinate adequately with other agencies. |
2009 – 2020 |
|
Ensure that both domestic and transnational child trafficking cases are investigated and violations punished. |
2013 – 2020 |
|
Gather, disaggregate, and publish information on the number of child labor violations found and penalties applied and collected, the number of investigations conducted, prosecutions initiated, and convictions obtained. |
2009 – 2020 |
|
Coordination |
Clarify individual mandates for coordinating mechanisms charged with combating child labor, and enhance inter-committee communication, coordination, and collaboration. |
2015 – 2020 |
Ensure all coordinating bodies are funded and able to carry out their intended mandates. |
2020 |
|
Government Policies |
Integrate child labor elimination and prevention strategies in the Education Sector Development Program, the National Technical & Vocational Education & Training Strategy, and the National Youth Policy. |
2013 – 2020 |
Ensure existing policies and action plans to address the worst forms of child labor are implemented as intended. |
2018 – 2020 |
|
Publish activities undertaken to implement key policies related to child labor to address child labor during the reporting period. |
2020 |
|
Social Programs |
Increase access to education for all children by decreasing the distance to schools in rural areas, hiring additional teachers, constructing sanitation facilities, and eliminating school-related costs. |
2010 – 2020 |
Develop or expand social protection programs to withdraw children from all sectors, including agriculture and domestic work. |
2009 – 2020 |
|
Ensure that social services, such as rehabilitation and reintegration centers, are available throughout the country. |
2009 – 2020 |
- UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. Consideration of Reports of States Parties. Report No. CRC/C/SR.1997. Geneva, May 28, 2015.
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRC/C/SR.1997&Lang=en - ILO Country Office to Ethiopia and Somalia in Partnership with the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Template to Analyze the Hazards and Risks of Different Occupations/Works for Children in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, 2014.
https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_382487/lang--en/index.htm - ILO Committee of Experts. Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) Ethiopia (ratification: 2003). Published: 2018.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3791150 - U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa. Reporting. January 22, 2019.
- International Labour Organization and Central Statistical Agency (CSA) of Ethiopia. 2015 Ethiopia National Child Labour Survey. Geneva: ILO, 2018.
https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_30035/lang--en/index.htm - U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa. Reporting. January 15, 2021.
- UNICEF Ethiopia and Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia. Child Labour Analysis in Ethiopia. December 2020.
https://www.unicef.org/ethiopia/reports/child-labour-analysis-ethiopia - UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 3 2021. For more information, please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
http://data.uis.unesco.org/ - ILO. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Socio Economic Survey (ESS 3), 2015–2016. Analysis received March 2021. Please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- Afri-Tech Consult PLC. Baseline Survey on Child Labor in Gamo Gofa and Wolaita Zones of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State and Gullele Sub-city of Addis Ababa City Administration. World Vision, August 2012. Source on file.
- Borko, Zegeye Paulos. Child Labor and Associated Problems (The Case of Damot Gale District in Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia). International Journal of Economics & Management Sciences, 6, No. 5, 2017.
https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/child-labor-and-associated-problems-the-case-of-damot-gale-district-in-wolaita-zone-ethiopia-2162-6359-1000450.pdf - U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa. Reporting. January 24, 2020.
- Negash, Girma. The Education of Children Entangled in Khat Trade in Ethiopia: The Case of Two Khat Market Centers. Forum for Social Studies, Addis Ababa University, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330651603_The_Education_of_Children_Entangled_in_Khat_Trade_in_Ethiopia_The_Case_of_Two_Khat_Market_Centers_Forum_for_Social_Studies_FSS_Addis_Ababa_ii - World Vision official. Interview with USDOL official. December 2019.
- World Vision Ethiopia. Sesame Supply Chains and Value Chains Assessment in Ethiopia: The Case of Child Labour in Sesame Production--Northwest Ethiopia. September 2020. Source on file.
- Shumetie, A., and Mamo, K. Effect of cropland and livestock ownership on child labour in eastern Ethiopia: empirical examination of the Wealth Paradox. ICEP 13, 5. August 26, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40723-019-0061-x - U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa official. E-mail communications to USDOL official. January 28, 2021.
- Tamene, Abebech. Ethiopia facing up to child labor crisis. Anadolu Agency, June 12, 2016.
http://aa.com.tr/en/africa/ethiopia-facing-up-to-child-labor-crisis/588314# - O'Kane, Claire; Barros, Ornella; Meslaoui, Nicolas. Il est Temps de Parler: Points de vue des enfants sur le travail des enfants. Allemagne: Fédération Internationale Terre des Hommes. May 2018.
https://www.time-to-talk.info/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/T2T_Report_French.pdf - Denbegna, Mulualem. Towards Stopping Child Labour Exploitation. The Ethiopian Herald, June 21, 2015. Source on file.
- Addis Standard. Behind the Smokescreen of Ethiopia's Surging Tobacco Production. allAfrica.com, October 8, 2015.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201510081086.html - ECPAT International and Defence for Children. Sexual Exploitation of Children in Ethiopia. Submission for the Universal Periodic Review of the human rights situation in Ethiopia. ECPAT Nederland, October 4, 2018.
https://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Universal-Periodic-Review-on-Sexual-Exploitation-of-Children-in-Ethiopia-English-2018.pdf - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2020: Ethiopia. Washington, DC. June 20, 2020.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-trafficking-in-persons-report/ethiopia/ - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2018: Ethiopia. Washington, DC, June 28, 2018.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-trafficking-in-persons-report/ethiopia/ - Gardner, Tom. Trafficked into slavery: The dark side of Addis Ababa's growth. Reuters, May 16, 2017.
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-trafficking-economy/trafficked-into-slavery-the-dark-side-of-addis-ababas-growth-idUSKCN18C0O1 - U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa. Reporting. February 26, 2021.
- UNICEF interviews with USDOL. December 2019.
- U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa. Reporting. February 19, 2019.
- U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa. Reporting. February 14, 2020.
- Wuilbercq, Emeline. Hundreds of unaccompanied child refugees vulnerable to exploitation and trafficking, aid agencies warn. Thomson Reuters Foundation. December 3, 2020.
https://www.reuters.com/article/ethiopia-conflict-trafficking/fleeing-tigray-war-ethiopian-children-seen-at-risk-of-trafficking-in-sudan-idUSL8N2IJ4OE - Wuilbercq, Emeline. Lone Ethiopian child refugees seen at risk of exploitation in Sudan. Thompson Reuters Foundation. January 15, 2021.
https://news.trust.org/item/20210115131115-vv6zd - UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict. United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, Ms. Pramila Patten, urges all parties to prohibit the use of sexual violence and cease hostilities in the Tigray region of Ethiopia. January 21, 2021.
https://www.un.org/sexualviolenceinconflict/press-release/united-nations-special-representative-of-the-secretary-general-on-sexual-violence-in-conflict-ms-pramila-patten-urges-all-parties-to-prohibit-the-use-of-sexual-violence-and-cease-hostilities-in-the/ - World Peace Foundation. How Armed Conflict and Mass Atrocities Have Destroyed an Ethiopian Region's Economy and Food System and Are Threatening Famine. April 6, 2021.
https://sites.tufts.edu/wpf/files/2021/04/Starving-Tigray-report-final.pdf - BBC. Ethiopia's Tigray crisis: 'I lost my hand when a soldier tried to rape me.' February 15, 2021.
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55832711 - UNICEF. Ethiopia Humanitarian Appeals: 2020. March 7, 2020.
https://www.unicef.org/appeals/ethiopia.html - UNICEF. Ethiopia Country Office Humanitarian Situation Report. Reporting Period: January – December 2020.
https://www.unicef.org/media/92181/file/Ethiopia SitRep 31 December 2020.pdf - UNICEF. UNICEF Acts to Help Ethiopian Refugees in Sudan. November 24. 2020.
https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/unicef-acts-help-ethiopian-refugees-sudan/37916 - UN OCHA. Humanitarian Needs Overview: Ethiopia. January 2020.
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Ethiopia Humanitarian Needs Overview 2020.pdf - Yusuf, Semir. Drivers of ethnic conflict in contemporary Ethiopia. ISS Africa, December 9, 2019.
https://issafrica.org/research/monographs/drivers-of-ethnic-conflict-in-contemporary-ethiopia - UN Ethiopia. UN Socio-economic Assessment of COVID-19 in Ethiopia. May 2020.
https://ethiopia.un.org/en/49388-un-socio-economic-assessment-covid-19-ethiopia - Ministry of Education, Education Strategy Center (ESC). Ethiopian Education Development Roadmap (2018–2030): An integrated Executive Summary. Addis Ababa, July 2018.
https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ressources/ethiopia_education_development_roadmap_2018-2030.pdf - Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack. Education Under Attack 2020. 2020.
https://protectingeducation.org/wp-content/uploads/eua_2020_full.pdf - Human Rights Watch. Ethiopia: Unlawful Shelling of Tigray Urban Areas. February 11, 2021.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/02/11/ethiopia-unlawful-shelling-tigray-urban-areas - Government of Ethiopia. Labour Proclamation No. 1156-2019. September 5, 2019.
http://www.ilo.int/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=109825&p_country=ETH&p_count=1 - Government of Ethiopia. The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Enacted: December 8, 1994.
https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf - Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. List of Hazardous Occupations for Children in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa; International Labour Organization, July 2011. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. The Criminal Code of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, No. 414/2004. Enacted: 2004.
- Government of Ethiopia. Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020. April 13, 2020.
https://chilot.me/2020/04/prevention-and-suppression-of-trafficking-in-persons-and-smuggling-of-persons-proclamation-no-1178-2020/ - Government of Ethiopia. Proclamation to Provide for the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants, No. 909/2015. Enacted: 2015.
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/101059/126622/F-402220324/ETH101059.pdf - ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Observation concerning Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) Ethiopia (ratification: 1999). Published: 2019.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3934930:NO - ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Direct Request concerning Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) Ethiopia (ratification: 1999). Published: 2019.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3934934:NO - Government of Ethiopia. Labour Proclamation, No. 377/2003. Enacted: February 26, 2004.
http://chilot.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/proc-no-377-2003-labour.pdf - Government of Ethiopia. Statement by H.E. Mrs. Zenebu Tadesse, Minister of Women, Children, and Youth Affairs at the Fourth and Fifth Review of Ethiopia before the Committee on the Rights of the Child. May 22, 2015.
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CRC/Shared Documents/ETH/INT_CRC_STA_ETH_20534_E.pdf - UN. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2017 Statistical Annex. New York, 2017. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/2017wesp_full_en.pdf - CIA. The World Factbook. Accessed January 19, 2018. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries - U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa official. E-mail to USDOL official. May 17, 2021.
- World Vision. Ethiopia, E4Y (Engaged, Educated, Empowered, Ethiopian Youth). Technical Progress Report. December 20, 2018. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. National Children's Policy. 2009. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. Education and Training Policy. April 1994.
http://www.moe.gov.et/PoliciesStrategies - Ministry of Education. Pastoralist Area Education Strategy. Addis Ababa, 2009.
https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/en/2009/pastoralist-area-education-strategy-5259 - Government of Ethiopia. National Technical & Vocational Education & Training (TVET) Strategy. Addis Ababa, August 2008. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. Education Sector Development Programme V (ESDP V)-Programme Action Plan. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Education, August 2015.
http://www.cmpethiopia.org/content/download/2267/9609/file/ESDP V FINAL.pdf - Government of Ethiopia. National Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons 2015/6-2020/1. March 2015. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia, and UN Country Team. United Nations Development Assistance Framework for Ethiopia 2016–2020. July 2015.
https://ethiopia.un.org/en/15232-united-nations-development-assistance-framework-2016-2020#:~:text=The United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) 2016-2020,Transformation Plan (GTP II) - Government of Ethiopia. National Human Rights Action Plan II 2016–2020. December 2016. Source on file.
- U.S. Embassy- Addis Ababa official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. June 10, 2019.
- UN High Commissioner for Refugees. Ethiopia National Refugee Child Protection Strategy 2017–2019. 2017.
https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/62618 - Government of Ethiopia. National Youth Policy. July 2015.
https://chilot.me/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/fdre-youth-policy.pdf - Adem, Getachew and Kinde Getnet. National Employment Policy & Strategy of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Government of Ethiopia. December 2009. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. Social Protection Policy. Addis Ababa, November 2014. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. National Occupational Safety and Health Policy and Strategy. Addis Ababa, July 2014. Source on file.
- Government of Ethiopia. Growth and Transformation Plan 2015. Addis Ababa, October 2015. Source on file.
- United Nations Ethiopia. National Pathfinder Country Strategic Workshop on Alliance 8.7 in Ethiopia. December 2019.
https://www.alliance87.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/PressRelease_Ethiopia_A87Workshop.pdf - Ellis, Carey. World Vision leads new programme to eradicate child slavery in East Africa. World Vision UK, December 2, 2018.
https://www.worldvision.org.uk/news-and-views/latest-news/2018/december/world-vision-leads-new-programme-eradicate-child-slavery-east-africa/ - Thompson Reuters Foundation. Multi-million-pound project announced to fight child trafficking and forced labour in Africa. December 2, 2018.
https://www.trust.org/contentAsset/raw-data/d8f88cdf-7b0a-400b-ab89-b9b4ffb2be17/document - World Bank. Project Paper on a Proposed Additional Credit in the Amount of US$108.1 Million to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia for the Productive Safety Net Project IV. April 19, 2017 (accessed October 17, 2017).
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/987181493949648075/pdf/Ethiopia-PP-04212017.pdf - World Bank. Program Appraisal Document on a Proposed IDA Grant and Multi-Donor Trust Fund Grant in the Amount of $300 Million IDA Grant and $140 Million MDTF Grant to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia for the General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (GEQIP-E). 2017.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/128401513911659858/pdf/ETHIOPIA-EDUC-PAD-11302017.pdf - World Bank. Ethiopia General Education Quality Improvement Project II. Implementation Status & Results Report. February 25, 2019.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/660891551132046171/pdf/Disclosable-Version-of-the-ISR-Ethiopia-General-Education-Quality-Improvement-Project-II-P129828-Sequence-No-11.pdf - World Bank. Ethiopia General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity. Implementation Status & Results Report. August 30, 2018.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/606981537152124626/pdf/Disclosable-Version-of-the-ISR-Ethiopia-General-Education-Quality-Improvement-Program-for-Equity-P163050-Sequence-No-02.pdf - World Bank. ET Productive Safety Nets Project 4 (PSNP 4). Implementation Status & Results Report. October 29, 2018.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/656981540851318661/pdf/Disclosable-Version-of-the-ISR-ET-Productive-Safety-Nets-Project-4-PSNP-4-P146883-Sequence-No-08.pdf - World Bank. Ethiopia General Education Quality Improvement Project II. Implementation Status & Results Report. September 12, 2019.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/439691568315724473/pdf/Disclosable-Version-of-the-ISR-Ethiopia-General-Education-Quality-Improvement-Project-II-P129828-Sequence-No-12.pdf - World Bank. ET Productive Safety Nets 4 Program (PSNP 4) Project Information Document (PID). September 4, 2014.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/591151468198841154/pdf/PID-Appraisal-Print-P146883-07-14-2014-1405350735921.pdf - World Bank. Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Credit in the Amount of US$130.0 Million to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia for a General Education Quality Improvement Project II. October 17, 2013.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/882171468257057062/pdf/PAD4760PAD0REP0E0Box379867B00OUO090.pdf - World Bank. Urban Productive Safety Net and Jobs Project. September 30, 2020.
https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P169943 - Government of the United Kingdom. Ethiopia Productive Safety Net Programme phase 4 (PSNP 4). December 2016.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/575366/Ethiopia-PSNP4-Dec-2016.pdf - UNICEF. Ethiopia Humanitarian Situation Report #12 - Reporting Period January–December 2018. December 31, 2018.
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/UNICEF Ethiopia Humanitarian Situation Report #12, January - December 2018.pdf - USDOL. She Thrives: Reducing Child Labor in Ethiopia's Agricultural Sector using a Gender-Focused Approach. December 2020.
https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/she-thrives-reducing-child-labor-ethiopias-agricultural-sector-using-gender-focused - IOM. IOM trains police and government officials on identification, protection and referral of vulnerable migrants. ethiopia.iom.int, February 18, 2015.
https://ethiopia.iom.int/iom-trains-police-and-government-officials-identification-protection-and-referral-vulnerable - Government of Ethiopia. Proclamation No. 1049/2017 to Provide for the Amendment of the Vital Events Registration and National ID Proclamation. August 7, 2017.
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Proclamation-no.-1049-of-2017.pdf