Children in Ethiopia are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including forced labor in domestic work and commercial sexual exploitation. (1-4) According to the results of a 2015 national child labor survey published in 2018, almost 16 million children from the ages of 5 to 17 engaged in child labor. A majority of these children were found in the regions of Oromia, Amhara, and the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR). (5) The Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency (CSA) did not collect data on child labor during the reporting period. However, the CSA, UNICEF Ethiopia, and the Center for Evaluation and Development published a report entitled "Child Labor Analysis in Ethiopia 2020." (6,7) The report supplemented CSA's 2015 Ethiopia National Child Labor Survey with new data on hard-to-reach children working in urban areas. (6,7) Table 1 provides key indicators on children's work and education in Ethiopia.

Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2015, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2021. (8)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization’s analysis of statistics from Socio Economic Survey (ESS 3), 2015–2016. (9)

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

Ethiopian children voluntarily travel to Amhara, a region bordering a key irregular migration route to Europe, to harvest sesame. This sector is allegedly linked to overland smuggling networks, with children earning enough to fund passage to Europe via North Africa. (14,15) Many others journey through Djibouti en route to Persian Gulf states, where they are often intercepted, repatriated, and later routed to a transition center in Addis Ababa. (14) Somaliland intercepts between 50 and 100 children a week, many under the age of 13, from Amhara and Oromia on their way to the Middle East. (14,27) Children who begin as voluntary migrants may be forced into commercial sexual exploitation, or become victims of forced labor. (22,23) Research on child trafficking victims from SNNPR and Oromia indicates that 85 percent were rescued from or escaped domestic work, while 2/3 suffered exploitation and abuse. While 55 percent of the surveyed children were sent to Addis Ababa by family, another 11 percent were actively exploited by brokers within their communities. (26) The children surveyed were mostly from families that continue to play a role in financing and coercing their children to go abroad or to urban areas to look for work. (22,25,28) Trusted community members, known as manamasas, recruit and groom vulnerable youth on behalf of local and international human trafficking syndicates. (23,29) Traffickers also exploit children from rural areas surrounding Addis Ababa and other regions of the country for forced labor in the weaving industry, street vending, construction, and domestic work. (10,23,25) Traffickers exploit Ethiopian girls in commercial sex and domestic servitude in neighboring countries. (23) In addition, children in Oromia and Amhara reportedly harvest and sell khat, a stimulant to which they may become addicted due to bodily contact with the plants’ excretions during harvest. (12,14) The plant releases two highly addictive central nervous system stimulants – cathinone and cathine – whose acute and long-term neurological effects include khat-induced psychosis. (13,14)

In November 2020, a conflict erupted in northern Tigray between government forces and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF); the conflict is ongoing. (30) By early December, more than 45,000 Ethiopians fleeing the war had crossed into Sudan, up to one-half of whom were children. (30) Hundreds of children crossed the border alone, leaving them vulnerable to labor exploitation and human trafficking. Moreover, unconfirmed reporting indicates the TPLF has recruited children, most of them teenagers, during the conflict. (6,17,30,31) Reports on the Tigray conflict also indicate sexual and gender-based violence is being used against women and girls. (32,33) At least 200 rape victims under the age of 18 were admitted to local hospitals in January; the majority reported that perpetrators wore Ethiopian army uniforms. (34) A military blockade has also disrupted emergency humanitarian aid distribution networks. (33,34) As a result of the ongoing violence in Tigray, some 2.3 million children in the region lack access to humanitarian assistance, and 1.3 million were unable to attend school. (6,35,36) In addition, 12,000 children who fled to Sudan to escape the conflict in Tigray had no access to education other than makeshift classrooms set up by NGOs operating across the border. (17,37)

Precise figures are in dispute, although the UN and other humanitarian organizations estimate that 1.1 million children were displaced in 2020, 66 percent due to armed conflict. (12,35,36,38) Ethnic unrest was also recorded in Oromia, Amhara, and SNNPR, and research suggests the Oromo Liberation Army-Shane may have recruited child soldiers. (6,39)

In 2020, COVID-19 pandemic-induced school closures affected an estimated 26 million children, 77% of whom are of primary school age. (17,40) With infrastructure for remote learning effectively non-existent, many children remained out of school for many months, and some have still not returned. These children are acutely vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, including child labor. (17,40) Armed conflicts and resulting humanitarian crises have also disrupted education in other parts of the country. Children in rural areas face additional barriers to education, including the distance they must travel to reach school; a lack of sanitation, which especially affects adolescent girls; sexual harassment; the requirement to pay for uniforms and supplies; and a lack of teachers. Somali and Afar regions had the lowest rates of school attendance, with only 38.6 percent of school-age children enrolled in the Somali region and 50.2 percent enrolled in the Afar region. (5,6,41) Armed elements, including the TPLF and the Ethiopian National Defense Force, targeted schools in Tigray with rocket and artillery fire. Non-state armed groups in Tigray and the western part of Oromia also occupied schools for military purposes. (12,27,42,43) These factors increase children’s risk of entering the workforce at a young age. (11,12,36,41)

Ethiopia has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Ethiopia’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including free and compulsory education.

* No conscription (47)
‡ Age calculated based on available information (6)

In February 2020, the government enacted the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178, and the law was published in April. (29,48) The proclamation amends penalties for commercial sexual exploitation of children, child trafficking, and certain forms of child labor exploitation. (6,48) However, under the new law, the recruitment of children by non-state armed forces is not criminalized.. (48) Moreover, not all Ethiopian laws related to child labor are in compliance with international standards. The types of hazardous work prohibited for children do not cover traditional weaving, an area of work in which there is evidence that children use dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools, and lift or transport heavy loads. (44,46) Moreover, Article 89.5 of the Labor Proclamation allows children ages 15 to 16 to engage in certain forms of hazardous work following the completion of a government-approved and inspected vocational training course. This contradicts ILO C. 138, which prohibits hazardous work for all children under age 16. (44,50) The Government of Ethiopia notes that, in practice, children begin apprenticeships after the completion of 10th grade, typically at age 16 or 17. (51) The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA) is currently revising the accompanying Directive on Prohibited Occupations for Young Workers; research has not determined whether this will extend further protections to young workers. (12,17) Finally, Ethiopia does not have a minimum compulsory education age, and its laws do not provide for free public education. (6)

The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the authority of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws, including financial resource allocation.

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2020, labor law enforcement agencies in Ethiopia took actions to combat child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the authority of MOLSA that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including financial and human resource allocation.

The government imposed a state of emergency in March and April of 2020 to mitigate community transmission of COVID-19. To protect inspectors and workers, MOLSA only conducted complaint-based inspections during this period. (17) In 2020, labor inspections focused on the construction, mining, and agricultural sectors, including the floricultural industry, in which child labor is known to occur; the government also conducted on-site inspection in local languages. Nevertheless, data on violations are not aggregated at the national level, and the government did not publish the number of child labor violations identified as a result of these inspections. (4,12,17) Labor inspectors refer child labor violations to judicial authorities, who are able to assess penalties. (6,44) During the reporting period, however, the government did not provide information on prosecutions or convictions related to child labor. (17)

Although the total number of labor inspectors dropped from the previous reporting period, the inspectorate hired 74 new labor inspectors in 2020, bringing the total number of inspectors to 621. (17) In 2020, the government began to implement a strategy to automate and digitalize inspection workplace systems. MOLSA collaborated with ILO to develop a digital inspection system, which was completed in 2020. (6) Implementation is planned for 2021. (17) With support from the German Society for International Cooperation, the labor inspectorate provided Training-of-Trainers (ToT) sessions on the 2019 Labor Proclamation and the use of labor inspection monitoring equipment. The ToT trainings were provided three times during the reporting period. (17)

However, the number of labor inspectors remains insufficient for the size of Ethiopia's workforce, which includes 52.8 million workers. According to the ILO's technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 40,000 workers in less developed economies, Ethiopia would employ about 1,321 inspectors. (54,55) In addition, MOLSA and other stakeholders report that a lack of resources and poor coordination among agencies hampered their ability to enforce child labor laws. (4,12)

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2020, criminal law enforcement agencies in Ethiopia took actions to combat child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including collecting and publishing enforcement statistics.

The 2020 Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation stipulates aggravated penalties for criminal convictions involving children for a number of offenses, including debt bondage, slavery, human trafficking, and certain forms of labor and sexual exploitation. (48) Under the new legislation, crimes against a child or a mentally ill or physically disabled person carry sentences of 10–20 years and a fine of $742–$2,472 (30,000–100,000 birr). (26,48) Moreover, for the first time in 20 years, the Attorney General’s Office disaggregated prosecution datasets for transnational and internal trafficking-in-persons violations. However, the government did not otherwise provide criminal law enforcement data for inclusion in this report. (4,12,23) Enforcement efforts continued to focus on transnational human trafficking for the purpose of forced labor, to the detriment of internal human trafficking, including trafficking children for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation. (23)

Ethiopian immigration and border patrol authorities refer human trafficking victims to NGO-run shelters, in which victims are given first aid and assistance to return home. Although the shelters do not disaggregate data for children, NGOs reported that many of those receiving services were younger than age 18, some of whom may have been returning from the Persian Gulf States. (28)

The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including coordination between agencies.

Limited committee budgets, overlapping mandates, and poor coordination between the committees and agencies hindered coordination efforts to address child labor at a national and regional level. (22,28)

The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including implementation.

‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (53,67-72)

In 2019, Ethiopia became a Pathfinder country under Alliance 8.7. This involves accelerating progress toward achieving commitments under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 8.7, which calls for the eradication of child labor by 2025, and the elimination of forced labor, modern slavery, and human trafficking by 2030. (73) To this end, in 2020, Ethiopia’s Minister of Labor and Social Affairs attended a virtual conference with SDG Alliance 8.7 Pathfinder countries, during which she shared Ethiopia's pandemic tripartite workplace response protocol. (17) The minister also spoke at the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development, which took place in July 2020 under the auspices of the Economic and Security Council. The aim of the meeting was to develop effective measures to eradicate forced labor, end modern slavery and human trafficking, secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labor, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and, by 2025, end child labor in all its forms. (6)

In 2020, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including adequacy of programs to address the full scope of the problem.

* Program was launched during the reporting period.
† Program is co-funded by the Government of Ethiopia. (17,18)
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (88,89)

Although the government participates in and implements several programs to combat child labor, these programs do not sufficiently target sectors with high incidences of child labor, such as agriculture and domestic work. (4) There is also a paucity of rehabilitation and reintegration centers throughout the country for victims of child trafficking or commercial sexual exploitation. (3,22) Moreover, both government and NGO-run shelters were unable to accept referrals of vulnerable children during the first months of the pandemic because they had to create separate areas for newcomers to quarantine. (6)

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Ethiopia (Table 11).

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