The April 1994 DIRB paper entitled Women in Somalia contains a section dealing with mutilation of the female genital organs and another on women's organizations in Somalia. Research carried out more recently by the DIRB generally corroborates the information contained in the document. Recent information on this subject is difficult to obtain: the government's fall in 1991 led to civil war, the collapse of the state and its institutions, and caused several international organizations to leave the country. This Response to Information Request is intended to supplement and update the above-mentioned document, which should be read first.

The Practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Somalia

Fouzia Ismail, a nurse of Somali origin working with the Somali community in Ottawa and an activist in the women's health field, stated in a 15 August 1996 interview that there are no current figures on the practice in Somalia, but that the genital mutilation of young girls, especially in its most severe form of infibulation, remains widespread not only within the country but also among Somali refugees abroad. A 9 July 1996 report in The Record states that "almost all Somali women are circumcised . . . ." In her report on genital mutilation published in 1994, Fran Hosken estimates that 98% of the women in Somalia have undergone mutilation of the genital organs (44). It is further estimated that 80% of Somali women have suffered infibulation (Dorkenoo 1994, 118; Johns Hopkins University Population Information Oct. 1995; The Record 9 July 1996). In a telephone interview with the DIRB, Asha Samad, Director of the women's studies program and a specialist in African studies at the City College of New York, stated that in her opinion these estimates are not exaggerated and are an accurate reflection of the situation in Somalia (23 Aug. 1996). According to several sources, some parents in countries with severe laws against genital mutilation choose to send their daughters to Somalia to have them undergo the operation there (The Toronto Star 13 Nov. 1994; The Calgary Herald 26 Nov. 1993; Ismail 15 Aug. 1996).

Procedures

Infibulation, the most widespread form of genital mutilation in Somalia, is generally carried out during the first twelve years of a girl's life (Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; The Vancouver Sun 11 Feb. 1993). It involves removing the clitoris, the labia minora and at least a part of the labia majora (The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 1995, 138; Dorkenoo 1994, 5; United Nations Aug. 1995, 8; Hosken 1994, 33). The two sides of the vulva are then sewn or glued together, leaving only a small opening to allow for the passage of urine and menstrual blood (ibid.; The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 1995, 138; Koso-Thomas 1992, 17; Dorkenoo 1994, 5).

In the rural areas of Somalia, young girls continue today to be infibulated by a family member or a neighbour, almost always a woman, generally in unhygienic conditions and without anaesthetic (Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; Samad 23 Aug. 1996; Hosken 1994, 114-15; see also The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 1995, 139). The naked girl is held firmly by several women who prevent her from moving, while one of them excises the sexual organs with a knife (Hosken 1994, 114-15; Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 1995, 139; United Nations Aug. 1995, 9). Subsequently the girl's legs are bandaged from the waist to the heels for a period of several weeks during which she must remain stretched out until the wound forms a scar (Dorkenoo 1994, 5; Hosken 1994, 33; The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 1995, 139; United Nations Aug. 1995, 9). In the urban centres, however, and among educated people, there is an increasing tendency to choose a less severe form of genital mutilation and have the surgical procedure carried out in medical centres by health professionals who use a local anaesthetic more often (Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; Samad 23 Aug. 1996; Hosken 1994, 115). According to Dr. G. Pieters, who has practised medicine in Somalia, in all of the country's urban centres the operation is performed in hospitals, and in some well-off urban families the parents take their children to private doctors so that the operation can be done under a general anaesthetic (Hosken 1994, 116).

The consequences of refusal

According to sources, Somali women have no choice but to submit to genital mutilation (The Toronto Star 13 Nov. 1994; Ismail 15 Aug. 1996), not only because they are too young to take any decisions at the time they are operated on (ibid.), but also because social pressure on the parents and next-of-kin is such that they end up succumbing to it even if they oppose the practice (ibid.; The Toronto Star 13 Nov. 1994; The Record 9 July 1996). A report in The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality indicates that "Even if the mother decides not to have FGM carried out on her daughter, when she is absent, the daughter may undergo FGM based on the decision of the grandmothers or other female relatives" (1995, 139). According to a 1995 United Nations report, women who do not undergo female genital mutilation in societies where such operations are the norm become victims of a social ostracism that makes it difficult for them to find a husband, while as single women they have only limited means of earning a living (1995, 73).

Ismail maintains that the tradition of genital mutilation is so firmly rooted in the Somali mentality and culture that it is difficult for a Somali woman to imagine life within her community without this rite of passage (15 Aug. 1996). Ismail cites the case of a Somali woman who, having lost her mother in early childhood, grew up without having had the operation and ended up committing suicide, since the scorn and rejection of her community had rendered life intolerable for her (ibid.). According to Dr. Mohammed Haddi, quoted by The Record, "Because marriage is an economic necessity in countries where circumcision is prevalent, it is 'seen as an act of love, rather than one of cruelty'" (9 July 1996).1 Asha Samad noted that, from the point of view of a Somali, it can seem strange, to say the least, for genital mutilation to be regarded as "a violation of human rights"; she added that, on the contrary, in Somalia it was the "norm" (23 Aug. 1996). Similarly, Kowser Omer Hashi, a specialist in women's health who actively advocates the abolition of genital mutilation and has written several articles on the subject, has stated that "FGM is not seen [by Somalis] as a form of violence against women and girl children; rather, it is seen as a sense of belonging to the community" (Canadian Woman Studies/Les Cahiers de la femme 1994, 63). Samad also explains that infibulation, which had been on the decline in urban environments for several years, is apparently again increasing, with parents subjecting their daughters to infibulation as a form of protection against rape, which became commonplace during the war (23 Aug. 1996).

Women's organizations

The African women's movement for the abolition of genital mutilation, a movement whose activities span national borders, has had no success to date in Somalia, as the civil war has changed the priorities and concerns of humanitarian bodies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; Samad 23 Aug. 1996). In a 2 September 1996 letter to the DIRB, the Inter-African Committee (IAC) states that this body has "not [had] any contacts in Somalia since the beginning of the war." The disappearance of state structures and institutions, as well as the judicial system, has led to the dissolution of the official women's groups that formerly worked to improve the condition of women and abolish practices such as infibulation (West Africa 20-26 Nov. 1995, 1798-99; Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; Samad 23 Aug. 1996; Hosken 1994, 399). Similarly, an article that appeared in June 1995 in Our Rights stresses the difficulties experienced by Somali women in organizing information sessions, both internationally and locally, because of the absence of formal institutions in the country.

Nevertheless, according to some sources, there is a grassroots movement of women in Somalia against female genital mutilation (IAC 2 Sept. 1996; Ismail 15 Aug. 1996). An article in the Inter-African Committee Newsletter mentions a small town in central Somalia called Luuq where a group of 22 traditional midwives reportedly called for the abolition of the practice (June 1996, 9). Furthermore, a United Nations report entitled From Relief to Development in Somalia mentions a women's group called Al-Hanan that held a consciousness-raising session against genital mutilation in Mogadishu in June 1996 (United Nations n.d. ). The West Africa report states that "Somali women's initiative[s] are already playing a significant role in certain regions of the country" (20-26 Nov. 1995, 1799). The article does not specify, however, whether these women are concerned with the question of genital mutilation (ibid.). In the self-proclaimed independent republic of Somaliland there are reports of official activity, with the support of UNICEF, directed towards the abolition of the practice (The Record 9 July 1996; Ismail 15 Aug. 1996; United Nations June 1996, 8).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the DIRB within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum.

References

The Calgary Herald. 26 November 1993. Liz Monteiro. "Female Circumcision 'Happening in Canada'." (NEXIS)

The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality [Toronto]. Summer 1995. Vol. 4, No. 2. Kowser Omer Hashi and Marilyn Entwistle. "Female Genital Mutilation: Cultural and Health Issues and Their Implications for Sexuality Counselling in Canada."

Canadian Woman Studies/Les Cahiers de la femme [Toronto]. 1994. Vol. 14, No. 3. Kowser Omer Hashi and Joan Silver. "No Words Can Express: Two Voices on Female Genital Mutilation."

Dorkenoo, Efua. 1994. Cutting the Rose: Female Genital Mutilation: The Practice and Its Prevention. London: Minority Rights Publications.

Hosken, Fran P. 1994. The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females. 4th rev. ed. Lexington, Mass.: WIN News.

Inter-African Committee (IAC)/Comité inter-africain (CI-AF), Geneva. 2 September 1996. Letter sent to the DIRB.

Inter-African Committee Newsletter [Geneva]. June 1996. No. 19. "Somalia: A Community Acts to End Female Genital Mutilation."

Ismail, Fouzia. 15 August 1996. Nurse of Somali origin working in Ottawa. Personal interview.

Johns Hopkins University Population Information [Baltimore]. October 1995. Karungari Kiragu. "Female Genital Mutilation: A Reproductive Health Concern." (NEXIS)

Koso-Thomas, Olayinka. 1992. The Circumcision of Women: A Strategy for Eradication. London: Zed Books.

Our Rights [London]. May-June 1995. Vol. 2, No. 2. "Somalia: Country Background ."

The Record [Hackensack, New Jersey]. 9 July 1996. Karin Davies. "Female Circumcision: Fighting a Ritual of Pain." (NEXIS)

Samad, Asha. 23 August 1996. Director of the women's studies program and professor of African studies at the City College of New York. Telephone interview.

The Toronto Star. 13 November 1994. Judy Steed. "Mission to Stop Female Genital Mutilation Health Workers Fear." (NEXIS)

United Nations. 1995. Les femmes dans le monde 1995 : des chiffres et des idées. New York: United Nations.

_____. August 1995. Human Rights: Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children. Fact Sheet No. 23. Geneva: United Nations.

_____. No date. Office of the United Nations Humanitarian and Resident Coordinator for Somalia. From Relief to Development in Somalia: Situation Report for the Period June 16-30, 1996. Geneva: United Nations.

The Vancouver Sun. 11 February 1993. Rebecca Wigod. "Circumcised Somali Women Face a Lifetime of Pain." (NEXIS)

West Africa [London]. 20-26 November 1995. Abdullah A. Mohamoud and Azza M. Karam. "Somalia: A Nation in Paralysis."

Attachments

The Calgary Herald. 26 November 1993. Liz Monteiro. "Female Circumcision 'Happening in Canada'." (NEXIS)

The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality [Toronto]. Summer 1995. Vol. 4, No. 2. Kowser Omer Hashi and Marilyn Entwistle. "Female Genital Mutilation: Cultural and Health Issues and Their Implications for Sexuality Counselling in Canada," pp. 137-47.

Canadian Woman Studies/Les Cahiers de la femme [Toronto]. 1994. Vol. 14, No. 3. Kowser Omer Hashi and Joan Silver. "No Words Can Express: Two Voices on Female Genital Mutilation," pp. 62-64.

Inter-African Committee (IAC)/Comité inter-africain (CI-AF), Geneva. 2 September 1996. Letter sent to the DIRB.

Inter-African Committee Newsletter [Geneva]. June 1996. No. 19. "Somalia: A Community Acts to End Female Genital Mutilation," p. 9.

Johns Hopkins University Population Information [Baltimore]. October 1995. Karungari Kiragu. "Female Genital Mutilation: A Reproductive Health Concern." (NEXIS)

Our Rights [London]. May-June 1995. Vol. 2, No. 2. "Somalia: Country Background ," pp. 12-13.

The Record [Hackensack, New Jersey]. 9 July 1996. Karin Davies. "Female Circumcision: Fighting a Ritual of Pain." (NEXIS)

The Toronto Star. 13 November 1994. Judy Steed. "Mission to Stop Female Genital Mutilation Health Workers Fear." (NEXIS)

The Vancouver Sun. 11 February 1993. Rebecca Wigod. "Circumcised Somali Women Face a Lifetime of Pain." (NEXIS)

West Africa [London]. 20-26 November 1995. Abdullah A. Mohamoud and Azza M. Karam. "Somalia: A Nation in Paralysis," p. 1798.

United Nations. No date. Office of the United Nations Humanitarian and Resident Coordinator for Somalia. From Relief to Development in Somalia: Situation Report for the Period June 16-30, 1996. Geneva: United Nations, p. 8.

NOTE

¹ See also The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 1995, 138.