The prime minister is the head of government and serves five-year terms. The leader of the majority coalition formed after parliamentary elections is appointed prime minister by the hereditary monarch, the grand duke, whose powers are largely ceremonial.

Following the October 2023 general elections, in which the conservative Christian Social People’s Party (CSV) won the most seats in the parliament, CSV leader Luc Frieden was appointed to form a coalition government. After several weeks of negotiations, then prime minister Xavier Bettel’s liberal Democratic Party (DP) joined the CSV to form a new government coalition, and Frieden became prime minister in November. No stable majority was possible without the CSV.

The unicameral legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, consists of 60 members elected to five-year terms by proportional representation. In the October 2023 election, the CSV won 21 seats, followed by the DP with 14 seats. The Luxembourg Socialist Workers’ Party (LSAP) received 11 seats. The Greens (DG) lost 5 of their previous 9 seats. The populist right-wing Alternative Democratic Reform Party (ADR) won 5 seats, while the Pirate Party received 3 and the Left took 2. The contest was generally seen as free and fair.

The electoral laws and framework are considered fair, and they are generally implemented impartially. Voting is compulsory. In 2017, the government passed a law allowing postal ballots for all citizens. Foreign nationals, who constitute approximately half of the population in Luxembourg, are not allowed to vote in national elections.

The political system is open to the establishment of new parties, which do not face undue obstacles in their formation or activities. Three parties have traditionally dominated politics: the CSV, historically aligned with the Roman Catholic Church; the LSAP, a center-left party; and the DP, which favors free-market economic policies. Four smaller parties—the Greens, the ADR, the Left, and the Pirate Party—have also won representation. New, small parties like Fokus and Liberté emerged ahead of the October 2023 election. While constituting a party is relatively easy, the structure and size of electoral constituencies favor larger parties.

The country has a record of peaceful transfers of power between rival parties. Both the DP and the Greens were in the opposition before forming the governing coalition with the LSAP in 2013. The CSV, which had played a leading role in most governments since 1945, was forced into opposition in 2013 for the first time since 1979, and it remained out of government until after the 2023 election.

Citizens are generally able to make political choices without undue interference from any democratically unaccountable groups. However, close links between the country’s financial center and its law-making elites are regularly topics of concern for the opposition and outside observers.

Women engage actively in politics, and the government has taken measures to encourage greater participation. A 2016 law mandates that at least 40 percent of each party’s electoral candidates be women; parties risk losing a portion of their public financing if they do not meet the quota. However, only 20 women hold seats in the Chamber of Deputies, making up about 33 percent of the body. Citizens who belong to ethnic minorities and LGBT+ people enjoy full political rights and are free to participate in practice. In 2013, Bettel became the nation’s first openly gay prime minister.

About 47 percent of the population consists of foreign nationals, most of whom are citizens of other European Union (EU) member states, with Portugal accounting for the largest single contingent. The law allows naturalization and dual nationality, and children automatically gain citizenship when a parent is naturalized. Foreign residents are entitled to vote in municipal elections and EU foreigners can participate in EU elections. In 2021, the government abolished a five-year residency requirement for voting in municipal elections; however, foreign residents are excluded from participating in national elections. Notably, politicians of foreign origin remain rare in Luxembourg, despite the background of nearly half the population.

The prime minister, cabinet, and parliament determine and implement the government’s policies without improper interference from unelected entities.

Corruption is not widespread in Luxembourg, and allegations of corruption are generally investigated and prosecuted. However, the Council of Europe’s Group of States against Corruption (GRECO) has previously criticized the government for failing to develop a comprehensive strategy to prevent graft. In 2021 and 2022, new transparency and accountability rules were adopted regarding potential conflicts of interest for members of the government and members of parliament. New measures include regulations for government and other officials on gifts, lobbying, and revolving-door career moves. The European Commission’s 2023 Rule of Law Report noted that implementation of the transparency register for parliamentarians has been “minimal,” and recommended that the government “continue to implement and evaluate the new legislation on lobbying the Parliament.”

In January 2022, the government put forward a draft law for protecting whistleblowers based on a 2019 EU directive requiring such protections. It was adopted in May 2023.

While the legislative process and government operations are largely transparent, there is no comprehensive freedom of information law in place, and the media and civil society groups often have difficulty obtaining official information in practice. Cabinet members are obligated to disclose any shares in companies that they own, but there are no penalties for those who do not cooperate.

Historically, regulations governing interactions between lobbyists and high-level government officials have been considered weak. A newly established transparency register for members of parliament, created by law in December 2021, remains flawed. Moreover, following a November 2022 ruling of the European Court of Justice (ECJ), the government decided to suspend public access to the central register of corporations’ ultimate beneficial owners (UBOs). After criticism from transparency advocates and members of the press—who have used the registry for investigations on tax avoidance and money laundering—the government promised renewed access, albeit in a more limited form.

In June 2022, after years of complaints by journalists’ organizations, the government eased its rules on access to information. However, according to the same organizations, the new rules still did not provide adequate access and did not carry the weight of a change to the nation’s laws. The CSV, which is now governing, has promised a new access to information law. In July 2023, the Ministry of State announced plans for draft amendments to the country’s Administrative Transparency Law that would increase public access to administrative documents, bringing the legislation in line with international standards.

Freedom of the press is guaranteed by the constitution and generally respected in practice. Luxembourg’s media market is regulated by the Independent Luxembourg Broadcasting Authority (ALIA). A single conglomerate, RTL Télé Lëtzebuerg (RTL), dominates broadcast radio and television, though numerous print, online, and foreign news sources are also available and present a broad range of views. Internet access is not restricted.

The written press has historically tended to align with traditional parties. In 2020, the Belgian conglomerate Mediahuis purchased the Saint-Paul group, the owner of the country’s largest daily newspaper, the Luxemburger Wort.

Freedom of religion is largely respected in practice. The state has historically paid the salaries of clergy from a variety of Christian groups, but a 2016 law ended the practice for all clergy hired after that point. Under the law, the government continued to provide some funding to six major recognized religious communities, including the Muslim community, based on their size. Religious instruction in secondary and primary schools was phased out in 2016 and 2017. In 2018, the parliament adopted legislation that banned face coverings in schools, medical facilities, public buildings, public transport, and retirement homes. The law was widely understood to be aimed at Muslims, though the wearing of such garments is extremely rare in the country.

Academic freedom is generally respected in practice.

Freedom of expression is largely respected, and individuals can voice their political views without fear of retribution.

Freedom of assembly is guaranteed by the constitution and generally respected in practice.

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are largely free to operate without any undue restrictions.

Workers are free to organize in trade unions and bargain collectively. The right to strike is guaranteed once conciliation procedures are formally exhausted. Employers are subject to penalties for antiunion discrimination.

Judicial independence is generally upheld. Judges are appointed by the grand duke and cannot be removed arbitrarily.

Parliament finished discussions in December 2022 regarding a constitutional amendment that strengthens the independence of the judiciary by establishing a Council of Justice. The council, which was legally established in January 2023 and took office in July, is competent to nominate candidates for all judicial posts prior to their formal appointment by the executive and grand duke.

Due process is largely upheld in civil and criminal matters. Defendants have the right to a fair and public trial, and this right is generally respected. Police typically observe safeguards against arbitrary arrest and detention.

There are no major threats to civilians’ physical security. Prison conditions and protections against the illegitimate use of force are adequate, and violent crime is rare.

Discrimination on the basis of race, religion, disability, age, sex, gender identity, or sexual orientation is prohibited by law. The rights of LGBT+ people are generally respected.

Women have benefited from reductions in the gender pay gap and an increase in their labor participation rate in recent years, though women still hold significantly fewer senior positions than men.

The Luxembourg government has instituted an onerous language requirement for those seeking public sector jobs and employment. Individuals in the public sector must speak German, French, and Luxembourgish fluently. However, very few official documents are in Luxembourgish, and exceptions to this requirement are made for high-level positions due to a lack of qualified candidates. The requirement funnels citizens into public sector positions, which are lucrative and secure, pushing immigrant workers into the unstable private sector in which there are other barriers to entry. Moreover, discrimination in the education system, largely due to complex language requirements in schools, limits the economic potential of nonnationals.

In October 2023, the Bettel government announced that single men seeking asylum in Luxembourg, but who have already applied for asylum in another EU country, would no longer be provided immediate accommodation in government reception facilities. A number of human rights organizations condemned the decision as unduly discriminatory, and called on the government to “put an end to this inhuman and illegal practice.” In another controversial move, in December, the newly elected Frieden administration formally introduced a blanket ban on begging in the country’s capital. The ban, opposed by human rights organizations, was originally approved by the city council in March, but had not been enforced. It is set to come fully into force in early 2024.

Individuals generally enjoy freedom of movement, and there are no significant restrictions on their ability to change their place of residence, employment, or institution of higher education.

The rights to own property and operate private businesses are legally protected and respected in practice.

Individual freedoms on issues such as marriage and divorce are generally guaranteed. Same-sex marriage has been legal since 2014, and same-sex couples have full adoption rights. Abortions are legal on request within the first trimester of pregnancy; later abortions require two doctors to determine that the pregnancy poses a threat to the pregnant person’s life or health. The authorities generally uphold laws and practices meant to address rape and domestic violence.

The country’s residents largely enjoy equality of opportunity, and the government enforces legal protections against exploitative working conditions. Occasional cases of forced labor in the construction and food-service industries have been reported, especially among migrant workers.