12. April 2024

Diese Anfragebeantwortung wurde für die Veröffentlichung auf ecoi.net abgeändert

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Allgemeine Informationen

Vorgehen der Behörden gegen christliche Hauskirchen, Sanktionen und Verdacht der Verwestlichung bei Gemeindemitgliedern

Konsequenzen für Christ·innen, die sich weigern, an einem „Umerziehungskurs“ teilzunehmen

Quellen

Anhang: Quellenbeschreibungen und Informationen aus ausgewählten Quellen

Kurzbeschreibungen zu den in dieser Anfragebeantwortung verwendeten Quellen sowie Ausschnitte mit Informationen aus diesen Quellen finden Sie im Anhang.

Allgemeine Informationen

In Artikel 36 der Verfassung der Volksrepublik China von 1982 (in der Fassung vom März 2018) heißt es, dass Staatsbürger·innen der VR China Religionsfreiheit genießen und der Staat zum Schutz „normaler” religiöser Aktivitäten verpflichtet ist (Verfassung der Volksrepublik China, 4. Dezember 1982, Fassung vom 11. März 2018, Artikel 36). Der Begriff „normal“ werde dabei nicht definiert (CECC, November 2022, S. 98; USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Executive Summary).

Andererseits schreibt die Verfassung vor, dass niemand Religion für Tätigkeiten nutzen darf, durch welche die öffentliche Ordnung gestört, die Gesundheit der Bürger·innen beeinträchtigt oder in das Bildungswesen eingegriffen wird. Darüber hinaus dürfen religiöse Gruppierungen und Angelegenheiten nicht unter der Kontrolle „ausländischer Kräfte“ stehen (Verfassung der Volksrepublik China, 4. Dezember 1982, Fassung vom 11. März 2018, Artikel 36).

Durch eine Reihe von Vorschriften, die in den letzten Jahren erlassen worden seien, seien laut der Einschätzung der NGO Christian Solidarity Worldwide (CSW) die staatliche Kontrolle über religiöse Aktivitäten verstärkt und Grauzonen, innerhalb derer nichtregistrierte Kirchen bis dahin von manchen lokalen Behörden geduldet gewesen seien, abgeschafft worden (CECC, 1. Februar 2024, S. 4). Auf nicht amtlich registrierte „Hauskirchen“ werde Druck ausgeübt, damit diese sich den staatlich zugelassenen patriotischen religiösen Vereinigungen anschlössen oder sich auflösten (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Executive Summary; CECC, 1. Februar 2024, S. 4). So hätten laut ChinaAid die vom Staat nicht anerkannten „Hauskirchen“ inzwischen einen gänzlich illegalen Status (CECC, 1. Februar 2024, S. 4).

Mit einer im Dezember 2021 einberufenen Nationalen Konferenz über religiöse Arbeit hätten die Kommunistische Partei Chinas (KPCh) und die Regierung der Absicht von Staatsoberhaupt Xi Jinping und der Partei Ausdruck verliehen, in religiösen Fragen der nationalen Sicherheit Priorität einzuräumen. In seiner Rede auf der Konferenz habe Xi die anhaltende Bedeutung der nationalen Sicherheit in der „religiösen Arbeit“ betont, insbesondere im Hinblick auf Internet-basierte religiöse Aktivitäten und Inhalte. Auf dieser Konferenz habe Xi erneut bekräftigt, dass religiöse Gruppen durch „Sinisierung“ eine größere Autonomie gegenüber ausländischem Einfluss anstreben müssten. Dabei habe Xi auf eine Erwähnung der traditionell von der KPCh für die offiziell zugelassenen Religionsgruppen vorgeschriebenen „Drei-Selbst“-Formel betreffend die institutionelle Autonomie dieser Gruppen verzichtet. Diese Formel – Selbstverwaltung, Selbstfinanzierung, Selbstpropagierung) (CECC, November 2022, S. 98-99) – habe verlangt, dass diese Gruppen unabhängig von ausländischen Missionsausschüssen und Finanzmitteln blieben und ihre Missionstätigkeit ohne ausländische Missionsarbeit verrichteten (Vala, 4. Februar 2022). Stattdessen habe Xi erklärt, dass religiöse Arbeit auf die Stärkung von „Selbsterziehung, Selbstmanagement und Selbstdisziplin“ abzielen solle (CECC, November 2022, S. 99). Nach Ansicht von Carsten T. Vala, einem Politikwissenschaftler an der Loyola University Maryland (USA), der sich mit dem Protestantismus in China beschäftigt, sollte damit sichergestellt werden, dass die Tätigkeiten religiöser Führer innerhalb der von Staat bzw. Partei gesetzten Grenzen liegen würden (Vala, 4. Februar 2022).

Auf einer Sitzung des Ministeriums für öffentliche Sicherheit im Dezember 2021, die sich mit der Umsetzung der von der Konferenz für religiöse Arbeit festgelegten Ziele befasst habe, habe der damalige Minister für öffentliche Sicherheit erklärt, dass es Ziel der Arbeit im religiösen Bereich sei, vor „Radikalismus“, „Terrorismus“ und „Unterwanderung durch feindliche Kräfte“ zu schützen und gegen „illegale missionarische Tätigkeit“ und „xiejiao“ (邪教 auch: „xie jiao“) hart durchzugreifen (CECC, November 2022, S. 99).^[1] Dabei sei der Begriff „xiejiao“ nur vage definiert (CECC, 1. Februar 2024, S. 5). Das Verfahren, mit dem die Behörden Gruppen als „xiejiao“ einstufen würden, sei offenbar „komplett willkürlich“, zumal es keine öffentlich zugänglichen Regierungs- bzw. Rechtsdokumente gebe, die bestimmte Gruppierungen als „xiejiao“ definieren würden. Zudem komme es vor, dass manche Leiter·innen von Hauskirchen nur mit einer Geldstrafe belangt würden, während andere unter dem „xiejiao“-Label verhaftet und zu langen Haftstrafen verurteilt würden (CSW, 22. Jänner 2024).

Vorgehen der Behörden gegen christliche Hauskirchen, Sanktionen und Verdacht der Verwestlichung bei Gemeindemitgliedern

Nach Angaben von Benedict Rogers, einem unter anderem bei der NGO Christian Solidarity Worldwide (CSW) tätigen Menschenrechtsaktivisten mit dem Arbeitsschwerpunkt Ostasien, hätten die Einschränkungen der Religions- und Glaubensfreiheit in China seit dem Amtsantritt von Xi Jinping vor zwölf Jahren erheblich zugenommen. Insbesondere sei es zu einer Zentralisierung der Religionspolitik gekommen. Während die Lage hinsichtlich des Praktizierens von Religion früher je nach Gebiet und Haltung der jeweiligen Provinz- und Kommunalverwaltungen unterschiedlich gewesen sei, gebe es nun eine neue Schwerpunktsetzung auf Religion auf den höchsten Regierungsebenen (CECC, 1. Februar 2024, S. 2-3).

Laut dem US-Außenministerium (US Department of State, USDOS) habe die Regierung im Jahr 2022 Berichten zufolge weiterhin religiöse Gruppen kontrolliert und die Tätigkeiten und die persönliche Freiheit von Religionsanhänger·innen eingeschränkt, die sie als eine Bedrohung für die Interessen des Staates bzw. der KPCh wahrgenommen habe (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Executive Summary).

Laut Bitter Winter, einem Magazin über Religionsfreiheit und Menschenrechte in China, hätten die Behörden eine Reihe von Kirchen ins Visier genommen, die sich geweigert hätten, sich der „Patriotischen Drei-Selbst-Bewegung“ (Three-Self Patriotic Movement, TSPM), der offiziell anerkannten Organisation zur Verwaltung der protestantischen Kirchen in der VR China (DFAT, 22. Dezember 2021, S. 17), anzuschließen (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2). So würden die Behörden mit großer Härte gegen Hauskirchen vorgehen (Freedom House, 2024, Section D2).

Neben Festnahmen und Verhaftungen (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2; AI, Juli 2023, S. 3; AP, 21. Dezember 2023; Bitter Winter, 28. August 2023; CSW, 11. Dezember 2023), Folter in Haft (CSW, 28. Februar 2023) sowie strafrechtlichen Verurteilungen (HRC, 20. November 2023, S. 3) evangelischer Pastoren und anderer höherrangiger Gemeindemitglieder (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2; AI, Juli 2023, S. 3; AP, 21. Dezember 2023; HRC, 20. November 2023, S. 3) sei auch über Festnahmen einfacher Mitglieder evangelischer Gemeinden im Zuge von Razzien in den Städten Peking, Changchun (Provinz Jilin), Chengdu (Provinz Sichuan), Nujiang (Provinz Yunnan) und in der Provinz Shaanxi berichtet worden (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2). Darunter hätten sich auch etwa Teilnehmer·innen eines Bibelkreises befunden (CSW, Mai 2023, S. 6).

Mehrere Mitglieder der Early Rain Covenant Church (ERCC) in Chengdu, darunter auch ein Gemeindemitglied ohne spezifisch genanntes Profil, seien im März 2023 wegen „Aktivitäten im Namen einer verbotenen gesellschaftlichen Organisation“ in 14-tägige Administrativhaft genommen worden (CSW, 29. März 2023). Im August 2022 sei ein weiteres ERCC-Mitglied ohne spezifisch genanntes Profil, das sich bei einer Razzia geweigert habe, sich auszuweisen, festgenommen und des „Übergriffs auf die Polizei“ beschuldigt worden (ICC, 16. August 2022).

Eine weitere Christin, die ihre Kinder zu Hause in Literatur, Mathematik und Religion unterwiesen habe, sei verhaftet worden, nachdem ihr Ehemann die Behörden über ihren Glauben informiert habe (RI, 8. Februar 2024).

Solche Razzien auf Sonntagsgottesdienste und kleinere Zusammenkünfte von Hauskirchen würden häufig durchgeführt (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023). Festnahmen würden unter anderem wegen „Betriebs einer illegalen Organisation“ (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2), „illegaler Geschäftstätigkeit“ (Bitter Winter, 28. August 2023), „Organisierens und Förderung/Finanzierung illegaler Zusammenkünfte“ (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023), aber auch unter dem Vorwurf des vermeintlichen „Betrugs“ erfolgen (AP, 21. Dezember 2023; CSW, 5. Juli 2023). In manchen Fällen seien Gemeindemitglieder von der Polizei geschlagen und verletzt worden (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2). Eine genaue Eruierung der Gesamtzahl solcher Inhaftierungen sei aufgrund der verschärften Kontrolle des Internets im Land schwierig (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023).

Mitglieder der ERCC in Chengdu hätten berichtet, dass sie Ziel von Stromabschaltungen, telefonischen Warnungen, an der Haustür ausgesprochenen Drohungen, Stalking, Positionierung von Polizisten vor ihren Privatwohnungen und gewaltsamer Mitnahme auf Polizeistationen geworden seien – in dem Bestreben, sie von der Teilnahme an kirchlichen Zusammenkünften abzuhalten (CSW, 11. Dezember 2023). Laut einem von der NGO Christian Solidarity Worldwide (CSW) zitierten Bericht der christlichen Menschenrechtsorganisation ChinaAid hätten die Behörden auf Mitglieder einer von den Behörden als „illegal“ eingestuften Kirche in Linfen (Provinz Shaanxi) auch über deren Arbeitgeber·innen, Familien und Verwandte Druck ausgeübt. Einige seien außerdem gezwungen worden, belastendes Beweismaterial gegen die Kirchenleiter·innen zu fabrizieren und zu versprechen, die Kirche nicht mehr zu besuchen (CSW, 5. Juli 2023; vgl. auch USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2). Auch würden Schulkinder dazu veranlasst, zu erklären, ob sie Christ·innen seien und gegebenenfalls dazu verpflichtet, in einer Erklärung dem Christentum abzuschwören (RI, 8. Februar 2024; ChinaAid, 15. Dezember 2023).

Zudem hätten lokale Behörden eine Reihe von nicht amtlich registrierten protestantischen Kirchen geschlossen (Bitter Winter, 28. August 2023; USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2). So habe das Amt für zivile Angelegenheiten der Stadt Putian in der Provinz Fujian im September 2022 ein Verbot der örtlichen Berea-Kirche erlassen (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2). Die Überwachung von Kirchen habe während der COVID-19-Pandemie weiter zugenommen, zumal die Behörden diese als Vorwand genommen hätten, um religiöse Aktivitäten zu unterbinden, einzuschränken und zu überwachen. So seien etwa in der Provinz Zhejiang kirchliche Zusammenkünfte verboten worden, während der Betrieb von Kaufhäusern und Restaurants weiterhin erlaubt gewesen sei (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023).

Zudem hätten lokale Behörden von Kirchen verlangt, Überwachungskameras (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023; USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2) mit Gesichtserkennungstechnologie zu installieren, damit Besucher·innen, Leiter·innen und Predigten beobachtet werden könnten (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023). Pastor·innen, die eine Installierung von Gesichtserkennungskameras verweigern würden, würden verhaftet (ChinaAid, 15. Dezember 2023).

Nach Angaben eines Pastors einer im südostchinesischen Küstengebiet gelegenen Hauskirche, der sich geweigert habe, sich der TSPM anzuschließen, werde seine Gemeinde auch jetzt noch stark überwacht, nachdem sie – um Razzien auf Gottesdienste zu vermeiden – dazu übergegangen sei, sich nur noch in kleinen Gruppen von zehn Personen an unterschiedlichen Orten zu treffen (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023).

Zu diesem Thema konnten keine Informationen mit Bezug auf die Stadt Fuzhou und keine weiteren Informationen bezüglich der Provinz Fujian gefunden werden.

Konsequenzen für Christ·innen, die sich weigern, an einem „Umerziehungskurs“ teilzunehmen

Es konnten weder mit Fuzhou noch mit Bezug auf China allgemein Informationen zu Christ·innen gefunden werden, die sich einer Teilnahme an einem „Umerziehungskurs“ verweigern. Auch zur Frage, ob und gegebenenfalls nach welcher Zeitdauer die Behörden Personen vergessen, die auf Listen für Umerziehung standen, konnten keine Informationen gefunden werden. Jedoch wurden folgende Informationen zur Behandlung von Personen gefunden, die sich weigern, sich von ihrem christlichen Glauben loszusagen oder sich weigern, ihre Kinder bzw. Enkel·innen dazu zu veranlassen, dies zu tun.

Im April 2021 berichtete Radio Free Asia (RFA), dass die Behörden Christ·innen in geheimen mobilen „Transformationseinrichtungen“ inhaftieren würden, um sie dazu zu bringen, ihrem Glauben abzuschwören. So sei ein Mitglied einer Hauskirche in der Provinz Sichuan nach eigenen Angaben acht oder neun Monate lang in einer Einrichtung, die von der Zentralabteilung Vereinigte Arbeitsfront des Zentralkomitees der KPCh gemeinsam mit der Staatssicherheitspolizei betrieben werde, inhaftiert gewesen, nachdem es 2018 eine Razzia auf seine Kirche gegeben habe. Es habe sich dabei um eine mobile Einrichtung in einem Kellergeschoß gehandelt, die mit Personen aus unterschiedlichen Regierungsbehörden besetzt gewesen sei. Sie sei mit einer eigenen Arbeitsgruppe der KPCh-Zentralkommission für politische und rechtliche Angelegenheiten ausgestattet gewesen und habe primär Mitglieder von Hauskirchen ins Visier genommen. Während seiner Haft sei er in einem fensterlosen, unbelüfteten Raum eingesperrt und von zumeist in Zivil gekleideten Funktionär·innen der Vereinigten Arbeitsfront geschlagen, bedroht, beleidigt und eingeschüchtert worden. Dabei habe die Polizei weggeschaut. Man habe von ihm verlangt, eine vorgefertigte Erklärung zu unterschreiben. Personen, die dies ablehnen würden, seien weiterhin in Haft – darunter auch für längere Zeiträume in Einzelhaft – gehalten und geschlagen worden. Bei den meisten Häftlingen habe es sich um Personen gehandelt, die wegen kirchlicher Aktivitäten zunächst in Strafhaft genommen, dann aber mangels hinreichender Gründe für eine Strafverfolgung wieder auf Kaution freigelassen worden seien. Die Polizei habe sie dann stattdessen in einer „Transformationseinrichtung“ inhaftiert, wo sie einer „Gehirnwäsche“ unterzogen worden seien. Nach Angaben einer weiteren von RFA interviewten Person christlichen Glaubens gebe es im ganzen Land ähnliche Einrichtungen für Protestant·innen und andere religiöse Gruppen (RFA, 1. April 2021).

Personen, die nicht dabei kooperieren würden, ihre Kinder bzw. Enkel·innen dazu zu veranlassen, dem christlichen Glauben abzuschwören, könnten ihren Job verlieren. Laut Bob Fu, dem Gründer von ChinaAid, gebe es zudem Fälle, die zeigen würden, dass Großeltern ihren Anspruch auf öffentliche Gesundheits- und Wohlfahrtsleistungen verlieren würden, weil ihre Kinder die Enkel nicht vom christlichen Glauben abbringen würden (RI, 8. Februar 2024).

Zur Stadt Fuzhou bzw. zur Provinz Fujian konnten diesbezüglich keine Informationen gefunden werden.

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am [Veröffentlichungsdatum])

·      AI – Amnesty International: People's Republic of China: Human rights situation at a new low; Amnesty International: Submission to the 45th Session of the UPR Working Group, January-February 2024 [ASA 17/6751/2023], Juli 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2094945/ASA1767512023ENGLISH.pdf

·      AP – Associated Press: Christian group and family raise outcry over detention of another ‘house church’ elder in China, 21 Dezember 2023
https://apnews.com/article/china-house-church-ding-zhongfu-arrest-crackdown-febc146361f390211ebdbc31dafc846a

·      Bitter Winter: In August, a New Crackdown on House Churches in Guangdong, 28. August 2023
https://bitterwinter.org/in-august-a-new-crackdown-on-house-churches-in-guangdong/

·      CECC – Congressional-Executive Commission on China: Annual Report 2022, November 2022
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2082087/2022_CECC_Report_1.pdf

CECC – Congressional-Executive Commission on China: Testimony of Benedict Rogers before the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 1. Februar 2024
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2106468/Congressional+Executive+Commission+on+China+Written+Testimony+by+Benedict+Rogers.pdf

·      ChinaAid: 对华援助协会会长傅希秋牧师接受加拿大殉道者之声的播客《靠近火》节目专访 [Pastor Fu Xiqiu, Vorsitzender von ChinaAid, wurde im Podcast „Close to the Fire“ von Voice of the Martyrs Canada interviewt], 15. Dezember 2023
https://www.chinaaid.net/2023/12/blog-post_23.html

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: Vague definitions and arbitrary crackdowns make the struggle of China’s religious minorities that much harder, 22. Jänner 2024
https://forbinfull.org/2024/01/22/vague-definitions-and-arbitrary-crackdowns-make-the-struggle-of-chinas-religious-minorities-that-much-harder/

CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: House church pastors describe torture in secret detention, 28. Februar 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/02/28/press/5944/article.htm

CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: Early Rain Christians detained, families forcibly evicted, 29. März 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/03/29/press/5969/article.htm

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: ‘The Yunnan Model’: How religious communities are managed with a grid system under strengthened Party leadership, Mai 2023
https://docs-eu.livesiteadmin.com/dc3e323f-351c-4172-800e-4e02848abf80/the-yunnan-model-final.pdf

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: House church leaders prosecuted as criminal 'clique', 5. Juli 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/07/05/press/6034/article.htm

CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: Early Rain Church members harassed and leaders detained on fifth anniversary of crackdown, 11. Dezember 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/12/11/press/6130/article.htm

·      DFAT – Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Country Information Report People’s Republic of China, 22. Dezember 2021
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067346/country-information-report-china-22122021.pdf

·      Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2024 - China, 2024
https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2105013.html

·      HRC – UN Human Rights Council: Summary of stakeholders’ submissions on China; Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [A/HRC/WG.6/45/CHN/3], 20. November 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2102634/G2323840.pdf

·      ICC: China’s Early Rain Covenant Church Raided, 16. August 2022
https://www.persecution.org/2022/08/17/chinas-early-rain-covenant-church-raided/

·      RI – Release International: Chinese New Year – state targets Christian families, 8. Februar 2024
https://releaseinternational.org/chinese_new_year_state_targets_christian_families/

·      RFA – Radio Free Asia: Chinese Christians Held in Secretive Brainwashing Camps: Sources, 1. April 2021
https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/christians-camps-04012021081013.html

The Christian Post: China’s latest crackdown on underground churches is proving perilous, 8. Dezember 2023
https://www.christianpost.com/voices/chinas-latest-crackdown-on-underground-churches-is-concerning.html

·      USDOS – US Department of State: 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang), 15. Mai 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2091862.html

·      Vala, Carsten T., Reading Tea Leaves from the 2021 National Religious Work Conference, 4. Februar 2022
https://www.chinasource.org/resource-library/blog-entries/reading-tea-leaves-from-the-2021-national-religious-work-conference/

·      Verfassung der Volksrepublik China, 4. Dezember 1982, Fassung vom 11. März 2018 (englische Übersetzung, veröffentlicht vom Nationalen Volkskongress der VR China)
http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/constitution.html#

Anhang: Quellenbeschreibungen und Informationen aus ausgewählten Quellen

Associated Press (AP) ist eine Nachrichten- und Presseagentur mit Hauptsitz in New York.

·      AP – Associated Press: Christian group and family raise outcry over detention of another ‘house church’ elder in China, 21. Dezember 2023
https://apnews.com/article/china-house-church-ding-zhongfu-arrest-crackdown-febc146361f390211ebdbc31dafc846a

„Ding Zhongfu was awakened by loud pounding on his door. Five policemen greeted Ding, an elder in a Chinese church. The officers pinned him to the wall that Thursday morning in November and interrogated him while searching the apartment he shared with his wife, Ge Yunxia, and their 6-year old daughter. Ding’s family now pleads for his release after he was taken from his home in China’s central Anhui province on suspicion of fraud. In their first public comments on the case, the family denies that Ding committed any fraud. Instead, they told The Associated Press in an interview, it is part of a wider crackdown on religious freedoms in China.

Four others were detained, all senior members of the Ganquan church, a name that means ‘Sweet Spring,’ according to the family. All were taken on suspicion of fraud, according to a bulletin from a Christian prayer group.

‘Under the fabricated charge of ‘fraud,’ many Christians faced harsh persecution,’ said Bob Fu, the founder of a U.S.-based Christian rights group, ChinaAid, who is advocating for Ding’s release. Police have started using fraud charges in recent years against leaders of what are known as house churches, or informal churches not registered with the government in China.

While China allows the practice of Christianity, it can only legally be done at churches registered with the state. Many who choose to worship in house churches say that joining a state church means worshiping the supremacy of the government and Communist Party over God, which they reject. Beijing in the past several years has increased the pressure on house churches. In 2018, Chinese leader Xi Jinping issued a five-year plan to ‘Sinicize’ all the nation’s officially allowed religions, from Islam to Christianity to Buddhism, by infusing them with ‘Chinese characteristics’ such as loyalty to the Communist Party. Heeding the call, local governments started shutting down house churches through evictions, police interrogations and arrests.

In 2022, pastor Hao Zhiwei in central Hubei province was sentenced to eight years in prison after being charged with fraud, according to Fu. That same year, preachers Han Xiaodong and Li Jie and church worker Wang Qiang were also arrested on suspicion of committing fraud.

On Dec. 1 police called Ding Zhongfu’s wife into the station saying that her husband was being criminally detained on suspicion of fraud. They declined to give her a copy of any paperwork they had her sign that acknowledged they were investigating him.

A police officer at the Shushan branch’s criminal division who answered the phone Tuesday declined to answer questions, saying he could not verify the identity of The Associated Press journalist calling.” (AP, 21. Dezember 2023)

Bitter Winter ist ein Magazin über Religionsfreiheit und Menschenrechte in China, das vom italienischen Zentrum für Studien über neue Religionen (Centro Studi sulle Nuove Religioni, CESNUR) veröffentlicht wird.

·      Bitter Winter: In August, a New Crackdown on House Churches in Guangdong, 28. August 2023
https://bitterwinter.org/in-august-a-new-crackdown-on-house-churches-in-guangdong/

„In August, Elder Zhu Longfei of Shunde’s Shengjia Church was detained, Guangzhou’s Huajing Church was banned, and Meizhou’s New Hope Church was raided and sealed.

The authorities in China continue to try, based on indications coming from Xi Jinping himself at the 2021 National Conference on Work Related to Religious Affairs, to compel house churches to join the government-controlled Three-Self Church – or else. A campaign against independent house churches has been conducted this month of August in Guangdong province.

Zhu Longfei, an elder of the Shengjia Church, located in the Shunde District of the prefecture-level city of Foshan, Guangdong, was detained on August 8. This is part of the calvary of Shengjia Church, which seems to have no end. The Shunde church was repeatedly ‘invited’ to join the Three-Self Church and refused.

Devotees soon learned that their refusal came with a price. Their pastor Deng Yanxiang and Wang Weicai, a businessman who had left his professional activity to become a full-time church co-worker in 2016, were increasingly harassed by the police.

On May 24, 2023, the Shengjia Mutual Learning and Mutual Aid Center, i.e., the Bible study training class of the Shengjia Church, was raided by dozens of agents of the national security, the Shunde District Police, and the Ethnic and Religious Affairs Bureau. The church teaching and study materials were confiscated, and the church was sealed. Pastor Deng Yanxiang, Wang Weicai, and church workers Zhu Jianglong and Sister Zhu Qiaoling were detained. On May 25, all four were charged by the Shunde District Police with ‘illegal business operations,’ now a popular trumped-up charge against house church leaders.

On June 28, they were formally arrested by the Shunde District Procuratorate. Yet, the Shengjia Church continued to operate, led by Elder Zhu Longfei and other co-workers. As mentioned earlier, on August 8, Zhu Longfei was also detained by the Shunde District Police, accused himself of ‘illegal business operations,’ and taken to the Nanhai District Detention Center in Foshan City, Guangdong, where the other leaders of the Shengjia Church had also been jailed.

On August 19, the Civil Affairs Bureau of Tianhe District, one of the eleven districts of Guangdong’s capital, Guangzhou City, issued a notice to ban Guangzhou Huajing Christian Church.

On August 20, 2023, as reported by local devotees through social media, the local police raided New Hope Church in the prefecture-level city of Meizhou, Guangdong, a city famously connected with the Hakka ethnic group. Two preachers were detained, and the church was sealed.

There is no peace for house churches, unless they give up and agree to join the Three-Self Church.” (Bitter Winter, 28. August 2023)

Die Congressional-Executive Commission on China (CECC) ist eine staatliche Einrichtung der USA, deren Aufgabe die Beobachtung der Menschenrechtslage und der Rechtsstaatlichkeit in der Volksrepublik China ist.

·      CECC – Congressional-Executive Commission on China: Annual Report 2022, November 2022
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2082087/2022_CECC_Report_1.pdf

„Article 36 of China’s Constitution guarantees citizens ‘freedom of religious belief’ and protection for ‘normal religious activities.’ With terms such as ‘normal’ undefined, it is unclear whether China’s Constitution is intended to protect the same range of beliefs and outward manifestations that is recognized under international law. [...]

In December 2021, the Party and government convened the first National Conference on Religious Work since 2016, signaling Xi Jinping and the Party’s intent to prioritize national security in religious affairs. In his speech at the conference, Xi emphasized the ongoing importance of national security in religious work, especially with regard to online religious activity and content. Experts have identified such ‘securitization’ as a major theme of governance under Xi: since assuming leadership, Xi has applied a national security framework to non-traditional sectors, including the online activity of many businesses, individuals, and civil society groups. [...] To this end, at a December 2021 Ministry of Public Security meeting on implementing the goals set by the religious work conference, Minister of Public Security Zhao Kezhi said that religious affairs work should guard against ‘radicalism,’ ‘terrorism,’ and ‘infiltration by hostile forces,’ and should crack down on ‘illegal missionary activity’ and on xiejiao (a historical term usually translated as ‘evil cults’ or ‘heretical teachings,’ and used by the Party to refer to new religious movements it perceives as threatening, notably Falun Gong).

At the December conference, Xi also reiterated the need for religious groups to pursue greater autonomy from foreign influence through ‘sinicization.’ Omitting reference to the traditional ‘three- self’ formula for institutional autonomy mandated by the Party for approved religious groups – that these groups be ‘self-governing,’ ‘self-financing,’ and ‘self-propagating,’ and from which the Three- Self Patriotic Movement organization governing Protestant churches in China takes its name – Xi said that religious work should strengthen ‘self-education, self-management, and self-discipline.’ Scholar Carsten Vala concluded that the intent behind this ‘twist’ on the formula is not merely to limit foreign influence on religious groups, as the traditional formula did, but to ‘ensure [religious practitioners’] activities are circumscribed within Party-state bounds.’” (CECC, November 2022, S. 98-99)

·      CECC – Congressional-Executive Commission on China: Testimony of Benedict Rogers before the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 1. Februar 2024
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2106468/Congressional+Executive+Commission+on+China+Written+Testimony+by+Benedict+Rogers.pdf

„Over the past 12 years of Chinese leader Xi Jinping’s rule, the crackdown on freedom of religion or belief has intensified significantly. In particular, responsibility for policy on religious affairs has been centralized. Whereas in the past the situation for religious practice across the country varied, depending on the attitudes of the provincial or municipal governments, today, under Xi Jinping, there has been a new focus on religion at the highest levels of government.

Xi Jinping himself has made several speeches on religion, including in May 2015 to the Central United Front Conference held by the CCP [Chinese Communist Party]’s United Front Work Department (UFWD), in which he introduced the principle of ‘Sinicization of religion’. This policy requires religions in Mainland China to be independent of foreign influences and aligned to the CCP’s goals and values and under the Party’s control. [...]

In his most recent speech about religious affairs, in 2021, according to a Chinese language report on the website of the United Front Work Department of the Party’s Central Committee, ‘Xi emphasized the need to further promote the Sinicization of China’s religions, guide and support China’s religions to be led by socialist core values and enhance the identification of religious people with believers with the great motherland, the Chinese nation, Chinese culture, the CPC [Communist Party of China] and socialism with Chinese characteristics. [...] It is necessary to adhere to the overall concept of national security, adhere to the principle of independence and self-management, and promote related work in a coordinated manner. The management of religious affairs on the internet should be strengthened. Outstanding problems affecting the healthy transmission of religion in China should be effectively addressed.’

Xi Jinping’s campaign of the Sinicization of religion has nothing to do with healthy inculturation, adapting a religion to Chinese culture, but rather its objective is the total cooption of religion to the CCP’s agenda, aimed at absorbing religious communities into the United Front to further the CCP’s indoctrination, propaganda, surveillance and control. Any religious teachings that are not in conformity with the CCP’s teachings must be discarded. As a consequence, religious leaders are restricted in what they can preach in their sermons, and – moreover – they are required to actively support and promote the CCP in their sermons.

A range of new regulations regarding religious affairs have been introduced in recent years, notably the revised Regulations on Religious Affairs which took effect on February 1, 2018. These regulations, according to CSW, strengthen state control over religious activities in mainland China, closing down the gray area in which unregistered churches had until then been tolerated by some local authorities. Unregistered ‘house’ churches and other independent religious groups are under increasing pressure to either register or disband. According to the China Aid Association, ‘non-government churches, called ‘house churches’, have been outlawed completely. Many of them are ordered to join the official church system and submit to government censorship.’ [...]

The Church of Almighty God (CAG), a new religious movement established in 1991, also continues to face brutal suppression and persecution. Categorized as an ‘evil cult’ or ‘heterodox teaching’ (xie jiao) by the CCP, along with Falun Gong and other groups, it claims that since 2011 at least 400,000 of its members have been arrested and over 159 killed.15 In regard to the ‘xie jiao’ regulations, CSW stated in a January 2024 briefing that: ‘The Supreme People’s Court and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate interpreted ‘xie jiao’ as ‘illegal organisations, which, through fraudulent use of religion, qi gong, or any other name, by defying and promoting their ringleaders, or by fabricating and spreading superstitious fallacies to confuse and deceive others, grow membership and control group members, and harm society’. Such a vague definition gives the authorities power to target legitimate religious activities. A lawyer recalled a case where a house church pastor was accused for their ‘unbiblical teaching’ on suspicion of ‘spreading superstition’. Much to his amusement, the evidence produced was a doctrine document provided by a pastor affiliated with the government-approved Three Self Patriotic Movement (TPSM).” (CECC, 1 February 2024, S. 2-4)

ChinaAid ist eine christliche Menschenrechtsorganisation mit Sitz in den USA.

·      ChinaAid: 对华援助协会会长傅希秋牧师接受加拿大殉道者之声的播客《靠近火》节目专访 [Pastor Fu Xiqiu, Vorsitzender von ChinaAid, wurde im Podcast „Close to the Fire“ von Voice of the Martyrs Canada interviewt], 15. Dezember 2023
https://www.chinaaid.net/2023/12/blog-post_23.html

“（美国-2023 年 12 月 15 日)对华援助协会会长傅希秋牧师最近接受加拿大殉道者之声的播客《靠近火》节目的采访，他和主持人一起讨论了近年来为什么中国会发生如此强烈反对基督徒的现象。他直言，中国基督徒遭受的迫害是 40 年以来最严重的。

在谈话中，傅牧师深入剖析了中国共产党压迫和骚扰该国基督徒的方法，包括：强迫儿童放弃对耶稣的信仰、在教堂安装面部识别摄像头，以及逮捕拒绝安装面部识别摄像头的牧师，歪曲圣经故事事实。傅牧师还阐述了为什么耶稣的追随者在这个共产主义国家面临着许多挑战，但教会仍继续发展。[...]

傅希秋牧师说：“中国政府对基督徒和其他宗教少数群体的迫害确实达到了‘文革’以来 40 年来最严重的程度…… 我们第一次看到共产党对教会的全面打压；毫不夸张地说，是向基督教宣战。”

采访中他提到中国的审查工作特别针对基督徒青年。他说：“这是第一次，数百万中国儿童被迫签署一份表格，即‘家庭不信教承诺书’，这些基督教儿童被迫公开‘放弃’他们的信仰。”

共产党领导人还继续拆除教堂建筑中的十字架。“即使是政府认可的教会也成为迫害的目标，”傅希秋牧师说， “那些拒绝自愿销毁、拆除和拆除十字架的牧师一直面临着巨大的迫害风险。”

随着中国拥抱数字化社会监控，他们的一举一动都受到政府越来越多的关注。他说：

“政府批准的教堂，每个教堂的讲坛和教堂的四个角落都必须安装人脸识别摄像头，以便监控会众——是否有儿童、是否有 18 岁以下的青少年、是否有共产党。党员、共青团员、公务员、警察、军人这些人都被禁止进入教堂。”

他继续说，中国政府利用大数据对基督徒进行信息化、数字化来管控。中国宗教部门推出“宗教智慧云码”App，主日若去参加聚会，需要上网登记参与者的姓名等一些私人资料才可以进入教堂聚会。”(ChinaAid, 15. Dezember 2023)

Christian Solidarity Worldwide (CSW) ist eine auf Religions- und Glaubensfreiheit spezialisierte christliche Menschenrechtsorganisation mit Sitz im Vereinigten Königreich.

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: Early Rain Church members harassed and leaders detained on fifth anniversary of crackdown, 11. Dezember 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/12/11/press/6130/article.htm

„Authorities in Chengdu in China’s Sichuan Province resorted to various illegal measures to prevent leaders and members of Early Rain Covenant Church (ERCC) from taking part in an online prayer meeting on 9 December 2023, according to a post on the church’s Telegram channel.

The meeting was held to mark the fifth anniversary of a crackdown against the church in which over 100 members were arrested. The police operation lasted for about six months, and the church’s Pastor Wang Yi and Elder Qin Defu were criminally detained on trumped-up charges and later sentenced to nine and four years in prison respectively. Pastor Wang is still serving his sentence and the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention has adopted the opinion that his detention is arbitrary.

Ahead of this year’s event on 9 December, church members reported being subjected to power cuts, telephone warnings, door-to-door threats, stalking, the stationing of police outside family homes, and being forcibly taking to police stations, all in an effort to prevent or deter them from participating.

On 10 December – as the world celebrated International Human Rights Day, which marked the 75th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) – ERCC confirmed that church subdeacon Jia Xuewei had been placed under administrative detention for 15 days, and that preacher Dai Zhichao had been criminally detained on suspicion of ‘picking quarrel and provoking trouble’.” (CSW, 11. Dezember 2023)

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: House church leaders prosecuted as criminal 'clique', 5. Juli 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/07/05/press/6034/article.htm

„Three leaders of Linfen Covenant House (‘Shengyue Jiayuan’) Church in China’s northern Shanxi Province have been accused of forming a criminal ‘clique’ and obtaining ‘illegal income’ amounting to 780,000 yuan (approx. £85,000), according to a statement published by the church on 29 June.

According to an indictment sheet shared by the church, the public prosecutors in Yaodu District, Linfen, Shanxi, have brought formal charges against preachers Li Jie, Han Xiaodong and their co-worker Wang Qiang. The indictment alleges that Li and Han, who do not hold religious clergy credentials, established an ‘illegal organisation’ without official approval in Linfen and set up several ‘illegal activity sites’ in the city together with Wang; it also alleges that they ‘lured’ many people into paying tithes and thanksgiving offerings.

Li Jie and Han Xiaodong were taken into RSDL detention (Residential Surveillance in a Designated Location) after the church was raided by more than 100 police officers during an outdoor family event in August 2022. Both were subjected to sleep deprivation for three days and three nights.

They were officially arrested in September 2022, and Wang Qiang was detained in November 2022 and formally arrested in December 2022, all on fraud charges.

For about six months, Linfen police repeatedly summoned and harassed members of the church. Li’s wife and another co-worker were also detained for several weeks on suspicion of fraud before being released on bail.

China Aid reported in February 2023 that members of the church were under huge pressure from the authorities in Linfen, whose coercion and intimidation against the church involve employers, families and relatives, some of whom were forced to fabricate evidence against their leaders and promise that they would not attend the church.

Nonetheless, Li, Han and Wang’s wives have been writing articles in defence of their spouses, insisting on their innocence. [...] In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of religious leaders prosecuted with ‘fraud’ charges, which could carry a sentence of more than 10 years.“ (CSW, 5. Juli 2023)

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: ‘The Yunnan Model’: How religious communities are managed with a grid system under strengthened Party leadership, Mai 2023
https://docs-eu.livesiteadmin.com/dc3e323f-351c-4172-800e-4e02848abf80/the-yunnan-model-final.pdf

„On 12 January 2023 Fugong police in Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture took into detention four more Christians, who participated in a Bible study with Wang Shunping and the other four teachers in August 2022. They were released five days later.

On 14 April 2023 the police in Zhenxiong county in Zhaotong detained Chang Hao, a preacher of a rural church, and seized the copies of Bible and Christian books as well as face masks with Christian messages found in his home. He has since been criminally detained for allegedly ‘picking quarrels and provoking trouble’.” (CSW, Mai 2023, S. 6)

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: Early Rain Christians detained, families forcibly evicted, 29. März 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/03/29/press/5969/article.htm

„Three members of Early Rain Covenant Church (ERCC) in Chengdu, China, have been detained, and many families have been subject to forced evictions, according to a statement published by the church on 26 March.

On 24 March, police in Wenjiang District in Chengdu placed a deputy deacon of ERCC Jia Xuewei in administrative detention for 14 days. A preacher, Ding Shuqi, and another church member, Shu Qiong, were given the same punishment, also for ‘activities in the name of a banned social organisation’, a week earlier on 17 March.

Also on 17 March, Elder Li Yingqiang and his wife were forcibly taken by Wenjiang police to Deyang, another city in Sichuan province, without being given time to collect their two young children and keys to their rented accommodation.

On 21 March, Xiao Luobiao, another deputy deacon, found that his electricity meter had been stolen overnight. He and his wife Chen Yan were threatened with their belongings being thrown out unless they move out by 24 March. On 25 March, their family car was vandalised, with its tyres and windows damaged and insulting graffiti painted on the body of the vehicle.

In the statement published on 26 March, ERCC cited the experiences of six additional individuals/households who have also faced pressure to move. Mr Xiao’s family and three other ERCC households, who live in the same residential compound called ‘Languang Changdao’ in Shuangliu District, Chengdu, have been subject to particularly violent harassment: ‘The police, community grid and property management etc. have been using every conceivable means... They show a blatant disregard for the law and morality, and display the arrogance of power as well as imperious ignorance.’

A notice posted in a Wechat (China’s largest social media site) group on 24 March also conveys the mass surveillance and social hostility faced by religious communities in the area. In the notice sent by a community grid attendant from the Tongjiang Community in Shuangliu District, Chengdu, flat owners of ‘Languang Changdao’ are warned against letting to tenants who ‘organise illegal activities in the name of religion’. Owners are to take the initiative to break their leases if they realise their tenants are doing that, or they may face legal liability. The ‘unusual circumstances’ that owners should be looking out for include ‘frequent gatherings of people making noise such as reading scriptures, praying and singing songs’.

ERCC described the ‘crazy wave of repression’ the church is currently experiencing in a prayer request dated 19 March, saying all of its preachers had been either detained, forced to leave Chengdu, or placed under surveillance; all of its deacons had been heavily guarded and prevented from leaving their homes to serve at services; and many members had been threatened, intimidated and harassed.” (CSW, 29. März 2023)

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: House church pastors describe torture in secret detention, 28. Februar 2023
https://www.csw.org.uk/2023/02/28/press/5944/article.htm

„Xi’an Church of Abundance (‘Fengsheng’) released a statement on 22 February with details of the torture and mistreatment that three detained leaders of the church were subjected to in custody.

Senior Pastor Lian Changnian, 69, his son, Pastor Lian Xuliang, 41, and preacher Fu Juan, 38, had been held under ‘Residential Surveillance in a Designated Location’ (RSDL, a type of incommunicado detention that has been recognised by the UN as a form of forced disappearance) by Xi’an police since August 2022. On 15 February 2023 they were transferred to a detention centre where they were allowed to meet with their respective lawyers for the first time on 22 February.

In a statement seen by CSW, the church revealed that its three leaders were tortured while held in RSDL. Interrogators used a range of coercive means to obtain false statements.

Xi’an police officers threatened Senior Pastor Lian that they would subject his son to beatings or food deprivation. They blew smoke in his eyes during interrogation sessions, which ‘made him keep weeping but he was unable to cry’. On one occasion he was not allowed to use the bathroom for 27 hours.

The younger pastor Lian Xuliang was physically attacked eight times, including in one incident which took place in the presence of his father. During the first month of his RSDL detention, he was often only given one steamed bun and a half cup of water for a meal. As a result, ‘his health has suffered greatly’. Ms Fu was also physically attacked and threatened multiple times. [...]

Recently there has been a flurry of reports of police operations against unregistered Protestant and Catholic churches across China. In Beijing, Shouwang Church was raided by the authorities during a service at a rented venue on 9 February. The church’s pastor, Zhang Xiaofeng, was detained by police for 10 days.

In Hefei, Pastor Sun Hongguang, who was visiting and preaching at a church in the city was taken away by police during a service on 12 February. He was released later but his laptop was confiscated. Hefei police banned him from leaving the city.

In Chengdu, Early Rain Covenant Church (ERCC) issued a series of statements about a new wave of state oppression. Since 24 February many of its members have been summoned by police or questioned by Religious Affairs Bureau officials in attempts to stop them from participating in church gatherings. On 26 February at least six church leaders and their families were guarded by police and prevented from leaving their homes to attend a church service. On the same day, Chengdu authorities took the wife and children of Elder Li Yingqiang away from their home in Chengdu to Deyang, another city in Sichuan province.

In a prayer update shared on 19 February, ERCC said that four years after the 2019 crackdown, many of its members still have not been able to resume in-person service attendance; about a quarter of adult members have been ‘absent in services both offline and online’.

In Wenzhou, Bishop Shao Zhumin and his secretary, Father Jiang Sunian, were taken by police in January 2023 so that they could not attend the funeral of a fellow underground clergyman.

The Chinese authorities have tightened security throughout the country in the run-up to the annual Two Sessions, which will start on 4 March this year. Some dissidents, rights activists and religious leaders have reportedly been taken away from their cities by police, ostensibly for ‘tourism’, or placed under 24-hour surveillance.” (CSW, 28. Februar 2023)

·      CSW – Christian Solidarity Worldwide: Vague definitions and arbitrary crackdowns make the struggle of China’s religious minorities that much harder, 22. Jänner 2024
https://forbinfull.org/2024/01/22/vague-definitions-and-arbitrary-crackdowns-make-the-struggle-of-chinas-religious-minorities-that-much-harder/

„Xie jiao – usually translated into English as ‘heterodox teachings’ or ‘evil cults’ – has been illegal in China since October 1997. It is criminalised under Article 300 of the Criminal Law, which prohibits ‘organizing/using xie jiao to undermine implementation of the law’ and carries a punishment of three to seven years imprisonment, ‘or more’.

In 2017, China’s Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate expanded upon the definition of xie jiao by interpreting it as ‘illegal organisations, which, through fraudulent use of religion, qi gong, or any other name, by deifying and promoting their ringleaders, or by fabricating and spreading superstitious fallacies to confuse and deceive others, grow membership and control group members, and harm society’. [...] Many of those who have been convicted under Article 300 have been targeted for general missionary activities such as distributing and producing scriptures, or for being found in possession of xie jiao literature. [...]

Particularly challenging is the fact that the process by which the authorities identify groups as xie jiao appears to be completely arbitrary. In July 2022, China’s Anti-Xie-Jiao Association published an article listing 25 groups which the author claims have been designated xie jiao by ‘relevant national departments’ since the 1980s, but this is not an official document; in fact, there are no official government or legal documents defining any particular group as xie jiao that are accessible to the public. That some groups are frequently targeted while others in the same region are largely left alone makes matters even less clear. Some house church leaders may receive a fine, for example, while others are arrested and handed harsh prison sentences with a xie jiao label. One of the largest and best-known groups classified as xie jiao is believed to be the spiritual movement Falun Gong. [...] Such smoke, mirrors and secrecy all suit the CCP. They make it harder for religion or belief communities to know where they stand, driving many underground and making it more likely that groups will resort to self-censorship or stop meeting altogether.” (CSW, 22. Jänner 2024)

Freedom House ist eine in den USA ansässige Nichtregierungsorganisation, die sich mit Recherchen und Advocacy-Arbeit zu Demokratie, politischen Freiheiten und Menschenrechten befasst.

·      Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2024 - China, 2024
https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2105013.html

„The party-state operates a multifaceted apparatus to control all aspects of religious activity, including by vetting religious leaders for political reliability, placing limits on the number of religious authorities such as priests and imams, requiring ideological conformity within religious doctrine, and installing security cameras inside religious establishments. The state recognizes Buddhism, Catholicism, Islam, Protestant Christianity, and Taoism. All religious groups must go through a rigorous process of certification to be officially recognized; those that refuse are labeled illegal and persecuted. Thousands of Buddhist, Taoist, and folk-religion temples and house churches across China were completely or partially demolished by authorities in recent years.

Certain religions and religious groups, including Tibetan Buddhists, Uyghur Muslims, Falun Gong practitioners, and Christian ‘house churches,’ are persecuted harshly.” (Freedom House, 2024, Section D2)

Der Human Rights Council (HRC) ist der UNO-Menschenrechtsrat, eine zwischenstaatliche Einrichtung innerhalb der Vereinten Nationen zur Förderung und dem Schutz der Menschenrechte.

·      HRC – UN Human Rights Council: Summary of stakeholders’ submissions on China; Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [A/HRC/WG.6/45/CHN/3], 20. November 2023

https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2102634/G2323840.pdf

„19. JS8 [Joint Submission 8] stated that there had been continued reports of sentences against Christian leaders, the demolition or ‘rectification’ of more religious buildings, including churches and mosques, mass arrests of Tibetan Buddhists and the demolition of Tibetan Buddhist statues, and the arbitrary detention and disappearance of countless Falun Gong practitioners, members of the Church of Almighty God and other banned groups, as well as lawyers and activists who defended the right to freedom of religion or belief. JS8, ECLJ [European Centre for Law and Justice] and UFI [United Families International] recommended that China protect the rights of all people to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion in accordance with international human rights norms and standards. JS25 [Joint Submission 25] also recommended that China cease the practice of arbitrarily and violently raiding houses of worship and the arrest of faith leaders for their leadership of religious communities and their legitimate resistance to the Chinese Government’s encroachment upon the rights and liberties.” (HRC, 20. November 2023, S. 3)

International Christian Concern (ICC) ist eine ökumenische, regierungsunabhängige christliche Organisation mit Sitz in Washington, D.C., die sich mit den Rechten von Christ·innen und anderen religiösen Minderheiten befasst.

·      ICC – International Christian Concern: China’s Early Rain Covenant Church Raided, 16. August 2022
https://www.persecution.org/2022/08/17/chinas-early-rain-covenant-church-raided/

„The heavily persecuted Early Rain Covenant Church (ERCC) in China was raided by police during a Sunday worship service on Aug. 14. Sixty church members were released after they were forced to provide their identification. One member who refused to cooperate was detained and charged with assaulting police. The Chengdu-based house church was holding its in-person service at a tea shop when more than 20 police officers from the Wuhou district in uniform and plainclothes raided the venue. The police announced that ERCC was disbanded and the gathering illegal. They locked the doors and refused to let members leave until they supplied identification. Xing Hongwei was reluctant to give his personal information and resisted the police as they forced him toward the registration. Due to his resistance, Hongwei was arrested, handcuffed, and led away along with his wife, Zhao Qing. ERCC members waited for Hongwei outside the police station, only to learn that he was transferred elsewhere and would not be released anytime soon. Hongwei’s wife said he was charged with ‘assaulting police.’” (ICC, 16. August 2022)

Radio Free Asia (RFA) ist ein vom US-Kongress eingerichteter nichtkommerzieller Radiosender mit Sitz in Washington, D.C., der über Ost- und Südostasien berichtet.

·      RFA – Radio Free Asia: Chinese Christians Held in Secretive Brainwashing Camps: Sources, 1. April 2021
https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/christians-camps-04012021081013.html

„Authorities in China are detaining Christians in secretive, mobile ‘transformation’ facilities to make them renounce their faith, RFA has learned.

A member of a Christian ‘house church’ in the southwestern province of Sichuan who asked to be identified by a pseudonym Li Yuese said he was held in a facility run by the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP)'s United Front Work Department, working in tandem with the state security police, for 10 months after a raid on his church in 2018.

‘It was a mobile facility, that could just set up in some basement somewhere,’ Li said. ‘It was staffed by people from several different government departments.’

‘It had its own (CCP) political and legal affairs committee working group, and they mainly target Christians who are members of house churches,’ he said. [...]

Li said he was held in a windowless room for nearly 10 months, during which time he was beaten, verbally abused and ‘mentally tortured’ by staff, eventually resorting to self-harm by throwing himself against a wall. [...] ‘They threaten, insult and intimidate you. These were United Front officials, men, women, sometimes unidentified, usually in plain clothes. The police turn a blind eye to this,’ he said.

‘You have to accept the statement they prepare for you,’ he said. ‘If you refuse, you will be seen as having a bad attitude and they will keep you in detention and keep on beating you.’ Li said most of his fellow inmates were also people who had been released on bail during criminal detention for taking part in church-related activities. Most hadn't done anything that could trigger any criminal prosecution, so police sent them to the ‘transformation’ facilities instead, Li said. ‘They were using brainwashing methods on those of us who were on bail from the detention center,’ he said. ‘It was in a secret location, in a basement.’ ‘There were two plainclothes officers in my room, and a uniformed officer was in another room,’ Li said. ‘There were no windows, no ventilation and no time allowed outside,’ he said. ‘I was given just two meals a day, which were brought to the room by a designated person.’ Inmates who refused to ‘admit their mistakes’ were held in solitary confinement for prolonged periods. ‘There is no time limit for the brainwashing process,’ he said. ‘I don’t know the longest time anyone has been held there, but I was detained for eight or nine months.’ [...]

Another Christian who asked to remain anonymous told RFA that similar facilities are being used across China, not just for Protestants, but also for members of the underground Catholic church, and of the banned Falun Gong spiritual movement, a target of authorities since 1999.” (RFA, 1. April 2021)

Release International (RI) ist eine christliche Organisation mit Sitz im Vereinigten Königreich, die Christ·innen unterstützt, die aufgrund ihres Glaubens verfolgt werden.

·      RI – Release International: Chinese New Year – state targets Christian families, 8. Februar 2024
https://releaseinternational.org/chinese_new_year_state_targets_christian_families/

„RI [Release International]’s China partner says schoolchildren are being made to declare whether they are Christians, and those who admit their faith are required by the Communist Party to sign a declaration that they will renounce Christianity. According to Bob Fu: ‘If parents and grandparents refuse to cooperate in making their children denounce their faith, then their job security is jeopardised. Cases show that grandparents can lose their public health and welfare if parents fail to dissuade their children from believing in Christianity.’ Bob Fu is the president and founder of RI partner ChinaAid. He says one mother was teaching her five children at home about literature, maths and religion, when she found herself surrounded by police and arrested. ‘She learned that her husband had reported her faith. You can only imagine the kind of trauma this is causing right inside the family.’” (RI, 8. Februar 2024)

The Christian Post ist eine überkonfessionelle konservative evangelikale Online-Zeitung.

·      The Christian Post: China’s latest crackdown on underground churches is proving perilous, 8. Dezember 2023
https://www.christianpost.com/voices/chinas-latest-crackdown-on-underground-churches-is-concerning.html

„Unregistered house churches in China have become government targets. Raids on Sunday services and small groups are now a common occurrence. Online worship or prayer meetings are disrupted by police. Hotels dare not lease space to churches for fear of the government’s reprisal. This latest government crackdown is proving perilous to Chinese believers there.

Since the beginning of Xi’s Sinicization campaign in 2015 to make churches more Chinese in character, religions in the country have had to conform to the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) ideology and surrender more autonomy to the government. Removal of religious displays and symbols, flag-raising ceremonies, ‘red tunes’ (songs about CCP) competitions, and patriotic education for preachers and clergy have been imposed. Some churches in Jiangxi province have even been forced to replace portraits of Jesus with Xi Jinping’s photo. Failing to conform can affect their social benefits.

The level of surveillance imposed on churches increased during the pandemic, as the Chinese government used COVID-19 as an excuse to prevent, limit and monitor religious activities. In Zhejiang province, for instance, while malls and restaurants could operate, churches had to stop gathering. Local authorities throughout China also demanded churches install CCTVs with facial recognition technology so they could spy on their attendance, sermon, and leaders.

Leaders of house churches, especially those not afraid to speak out against the government crackdowns, find themselves targets of arbitrary arrest or trumped-up charges. [...]

Wang Shunping — a Christian of the Nu people in Yunnan province — was arrested in September 2022 for ‘organizing and sponsoring illegal gatherings.’ Last September, Hunan street preacher Chen Wensheng was detained on suspicion of ‘organizing and financing illegal gatherings.’ These reported cases represent just a fraction of Christians who have been incarcerated for practicing their faith. With tightened control of internet space in China, it is difficult to tally an exact count.

A pastor who leads a house church located in the coastal area of southeast China, shared his church’s experience of government crackdowns against unregistered churches with Global Christian Relief recently. He said his congregation first received warnings in 2014 after participating in a resistance movement against a campaign to remove a cross. Four years later, local authorities claimed that his church failed a fire inspection and had electrical issues. They also demanded that his church join the TSPM [Three-Self Patriotic Movement] state church. He refused, leading to more harassment and threats.

In October 2020, the church had its electricity cut twice and was forced to relocate. Their landlord was unable to resist pressure from the government and unilaterally ended the rental contract in January 2021. The congregation worshipped for months in a hotel meeting room, but restrictions there also became increasingly difficult. Police raided their services and forced hotels to stop renting to them. The church received a fine notice to deter them from gathering.

To avoid being raided, the church divided itself into smaller groups of 10. They gathered at different locations to keep a lower profile. Yet, they were still heavily surveilled. In the eyes of the government, religious gatherings can be detrimental to social stability and must be tightly controlled.” (The Christian Post, 8. Dezember 2023)

Das US Department of State (USDOS) ist das US-Bundesministerium, das für die auswärtigen Angelegenheiten der Vereinigten Staaten zuständig ist.

·      USDOS – US Department of State: 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: China (Includes Hong Kong, Macau, Tibet, and Xinjiang), 15. Mai 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2091862.html

„The constitution of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), which cites the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), states that citizens ‘enjoy freedom of religious belief’ but limits protections for religious practice to ‘normal religious activities,’ without defining ‘normal.’ [...]

The government reportedly continued to assert control over religious groups and to restrict the activities and personal freedom of religious adherents it perceived as threatening state or CCP interests, according to religious groups, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and international media reports. NGOs and media continued to report deaths in custody and that the government tortured, physically abused, arrested, disappeared, detained, sentenced to prison, subjected to forced indoctrination in CCP ideology, and harassed adherents of both registered and unregistered religious groups for activities related to their religious beliefs and practices. Due to a lack of transparency regarding law enforcement’s persecution of religious followers, estimates of those imprisoned during the year for their religious beliefs ranged from the low thousands to over 10,000. The NGO Human Rights without Frontiers estimated the government imprisoned 2,649 individuals for exercising their right to freedom of religion or belief as of year’s end. The Dui Hua (Dialogue) Foundation’s Political Prisoner Database counted 7,502 prisoners of conscience as of December 31, and said the most common charges were ‘organizing or using a cult to undermine implementation of law,’ endangering state security, and inciting ‘splittism,’ a charge often levied at ethnic minorities for taking part in religious, cultural, or pro-independence activities. [...]

NGOs reported the government continued to pressure unregistered religious groups to join the state-sanctioned patriotic religious associations or disband, subjecting their leaders to arrests and harassment.” (USDOS, 15 May 2023, Executive Summary)

„In March, the human rights NGO Dui Hua Foundation published a report entitled Persecution of Unorthodox Religious Groups in China. The report, which examined arrests and sentencing of 42 nontraditional religious groups, concluded, ‘Adherents of unorthodox religions rarely make their way onto prisoner lists submitted to the Chinese government in bilateral and multilateral human rights dialogues. Their numbers dwarf [the number of] those subject to coercive measures for exercising their political beliefs.’ The most common charge was ‘organizing or using a cult to undermine implementation of law,’ but charges also included endangering state security and inciting ‘splittism.’ The Dui Hua Foundation’s Political Prisoner Database counted 7,502 prisoners of conscience as of December 31, including Falun Gong practitioners, CAG members, members of other Protestant house churches, Muslims, and Buddhists. [...]

Bitter Winter, an online publication that tracks religious liberty and human rights abuses in the country, reported that in August, authorities targeted several churches that refused to join the TSPM. On August 14, police raided the Mentougou branch of the Zion Church in Beijing, detained Pastor Yang Jun and nine congregants, and confiscated their computers. On August 19, officials in Xian City, Shaanxi Province, determined the Church of Abundance (Fengsheng), which they accused of fraudulently collecting donations, was ‘an illegal social organization’ and ‘liquidated’ the church. On August 21, police in Changchun City, Jilin Province, detained nine members of the Changchun Sunshine Reformed Church on the charge of ‘operating an illegal religious organization’ and beat some members, who subsequently required hospitalization. According to the Italy-based NGO Center for Studies on New Religions, on September 9, the Changchun City Civil Affairs Bureau declared the Changchun Sunshine Reformed Church an ‘illegal social organization.’ [...]

ChinaAid reported that during the Beijing Winter Olympics in February, authorities detained members of house churches. The NGO said that on February 4, the day of the opening ceremonies, authorities arrested Beijing Divine Love Fellowship elder Xu Yonghai and several church members, holding them first at a hotel and then at a coffee shop near the Desheng police station in Beijing.

In August, according to International Christian Concern, police detained Pastor Lian Changnian, his wife Guo Jiuju, their son Pastor Lian Xuliang, and his wife Zhang Jun, along with their nine-year-old son and others from the Church of Abundance in Xian City, Shaanxi Province, after raiding their homes. Following the arrests, authorities handcuffed the adults and brought them to their church for a staged photograph session, during which authorities announced the detainees’ alleged crimes: illegal gathering, illegal use of a venue, and illegal collection of funds. A church member who witnessed the event said Lian Changnian had several injuries on his head and arms. Authorities released Guo and Zhang and other church members after the photoshoot, but Lian Changnian and Lian Xuliang remained in custody with their whereabouts unknown (‘under residential surveillance at a designated location’) in Shaanxi Province. Bitter Winter reported on October 20 that their spouses filed an appeal for their release.

Bitter Winter reported that on September 30, officials in Linfen City, Shanxi Province, arrested Pastor Li Jie and Elder Han Xiaodong of the Covenant House Church. At year’s end, they were being held in a detention center in Yaodu District in Linfen City. According to Bitter Winter, on August 19, more than 150 armed police raided a family summer camp run by the church and detained 70 members. At that time, police also searched Li and Han’s homes and seized their Bibles, other Christian books, and documents. According to church members, following the raid, authorities pressured them to sign statements renouncing their church membership and to testify that Li and Han had obtained donations to the church through fraud. [...]

Bitter Winter, UCA News, and International Christian Concern stated authorities detained Pastor Wang Shunping and four other Christians in late August in Nujiang, part of the Lisu Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province. On September 16, authorities formally charged them with ‘organizing and financing illegal gatherings.’ According to Bitter Winter, authorities originally detained the five individuals for refusing to join a state-sponsored church, and their arrest was another example of the government crackdown against Christians who were members of the area’s Nu and Lisu minorities.

UCA News reported on January 12 that the Linhai City Court in Taizhou, Zhejiang Province, upheld the seven-year prison term and RMB 20,000 ($2,900) fine for Chen Yu, head of the Wheat Bookstore in Taizhou. Police arrested Chen in 2020 and charged him with ‘illegal business operation’ for selling Christian books. Chen, also known by his social media pseudonym Zhang Mai, allegedly sold more than 20,000 Bibles and other Christian religious books, including some published in the United States and Taiwan, to thousands of customers around the country using the Weidian e-commerce app. [...]

The government continued to close down or hinder the activities of religious groups not affiliated with the state-sanctioned religious associations, including unregistered Protestants, Catholics, Muslims, Buddhists and others. At times, authorities said they shuttered a gathering because the group or its activities were unregistered; at other times, because the place of worship lacked necessary permits. Authorities allowed some unregistered groups to operate but did not recognize them legally. In some cases, authorities required unregistered religious groups to disband, leaving their congregants with the sole option of attending services under a state-sanctioned religious leader. In its annual report, ChinaAid said local governments across the country shut down many congregations that refused to join the TSPM. For example, on April 21, the Dalian Municipal Civil Affairs Bureau in Liaoning Province banned the Anshanghong Church. On May 30, Jiangxi Province’s Hukou County Civil Affairs Bureau banned the Hukou County Jiaxiang Church. On August 19, Shaanxi Province’s Xi’an Municipal Civil Affairs Bureau banned the Xi’an Church of Abundance. On September 26, Fujian Province’s Putian Municipal Civil Affairs Burau banned the Berea Church. An International Christian Concern representative said, ‘“The government’s goal is to see all house churches go extinct so they can fully control Christianity in China.’ The CEO of the NGO Release International said in September, ‘Our partners tell us that churches in China are facing the toughest persecution since the Cultural Revolution.’

International media and NGOs reported the government continued to carry out its nationwide campaign to ‘Sinicize religion’ by altering doctrines and practices across all faith traditions to conform to and bolster CCP ideology and emphasize loyalty to the CCP and the state. The CCP’s 2020 Administrative Measures for Religious Groups further formalized administrative procedures for Sinicizing all religions, while, according to the State Council website, at the National Conference on Religious Affairs held in December 2021, President Xi emphasized the need for religious groups and leaders to ‘uphold and develop a religious theory of socialism with Chinese characteristics, work in line with the Party’s basic policy on religious affairs, and uphold the principle that religions in China must be Chinese in orientation.’ In August, ChinaAid stated, ’China has spared no effort in its crackdown on religious freedom, requiring that all relevant religious activities be carried out to serve the authorities, that religious information be disseminated with the permission of the authorities, and that believers be brainwashed under the cover of Sinicization of religion[.]’

On June 13, UCA News reported state-sanctioned religious groups, including the Chinese Buddhist Association, Chinese Taoist Association, Islamic Association of China, CCPA, Bishops’ Conference of the Catholic Church in China (BCCCC), TSPM, and the China Christian Council, issued a joint statement pledging that they would adhere to CCP guidelines for management of religions, including supervision of religious institutes, finances, and properties. The statement said the seven groups sought to ‘implement the spirit’ of the December 2021 National Conference on Religious Affairs.

On February 2, UCA News reported that following the national conference in December 2021, the government promoted a new textbook titled The Principles of Scientific Atheism for use in colleges and among party members. The book, authored by academic Li Shen, advanced Xi Jinping’s theory that Chinese culture ‘has always been nonreligious’ and his insistence that Karl Marx’s views on religion should be studied thoroughly by the CCP. The book also defended the nonexistence of God and warned of the ‘harmful effects of religion,’ according to UCA News.

In March, Bitter Winter reported that in a document, UFWD deputy minister and SARA director Wang Zuo’an ‘requested’ TSPM pastors study the new directives on Sinicization of religion that emerged from Xi’s speech at the December 2021 conference. The document stated that religions that refused to follow the ‘correct political direction’ should be resolutely suppressed and eradicated, and ‘only religions that are compatible with socialist society and have been Sinicized can contribute to the stability of our society.’

The government continued to execute its 2018-22 five-year plan to promote the Sinicization of Christianity by ‘incorporating Chinese elements into church worship services, hymns and songs, clerical attire, and the architectural style of church buildings’. According to Bitter Winter, a TSPM report to 20th Party Congress in October stated that the ‘new concept of Sinicization’ of Christianity meant ‘accepting the Marxist view of religion.’ In the report, TSPM Committee chairman Pastor Xu Xiaohong said the church should accept its role as outlined by President Xi at the December 2021 conference to persuade believers to support the CCP, not interfere with social life, and not interfere with the education of younger generations. Yu said that because these aims were not yet totally clear to all TSPM pastors, the TSPM would launch a new five-year Sinicization plan in 2023, which would include more standardized sermons to be preached in all churches. Yu said he hoped the plan would lead Chinese Protestant Christianity to ’unite more closely around the Central Committee of the Party with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.’

ChinaAid reported that on May 23, a TSPM group in Fujian Province held a seminar on ‘Managing Christianity Successfully in the New Era – the Sinicization of Biblical Interpretation, Exposition, and Application.’ Approximately 120 government, academic, and religious figures attended. On June 30, a TSPM group in Fujian Province gave a presentation on ‘Biblical Sinicization’ to 100 faculty and staff members from the Pingtan Comprehensive Experimental Zone parish. [...]

International Christian Concern reported that in the lead-up to the 20th Party Congress in October, police raided several house churches in August and September in furtherance of President Xi’s policy of disbanding house churches or bringing them under the control of the TSPM. Radio Free Asia (RFA) reported that on August 14, approximately 30 officers raided a teahouse in Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, where 50 Early Rain Covenant Church members were meeting. The officers accused them of holding an illegal gathering and detained Xing Hongwei, a Christian writer and translator, for allegedly assaulting an officer. According to one church member, the state security police chief for Wuhou District led the raid and said the Chengdu police department was taking a ‘zero tolerance’ approach to the church holding gatherings. Also on August 14, police raided the Beijing Zion Church’s Mentuoguo location in Beijing and detained Pastor Yang Jun for three days. Police raided the House of Light Church in Changchun City, Jilin Province, during Sunday worship services on August 21. Videos circulated by congregants showed police beating them during the raid, and two congregants reportedly required medical attention. Authorities detained Pastor Zhang Yong and two other church leaders. The three were released the next day. On September 9, the Changchun City Civil Affairs Bureau banned the Changchun Sunshine Reformed Church, claiming it is an ‘illegal civil organization’ and an ‘illegal social organization.’ [...]

The government continued to label several religious groups, including the CAG, Shouters, All-Sphere Church, Guanyin Method, and many others as cults or xie jiao organizations. According to Bitter Winter, in August, the government updated its official list, which included more than 20 groups, mainly Christian and Buddhist but also Falun Gong. The human rights publication stated the regime increasingly classified as xie jiao any group the CCP perceived as hostile to the regime, and courts ‘increasingly interpret the category by including in it even groups that are not part of the official list of the xie jiao.’ In May, Bitter Winter reported the government instituted an anti-xie jiao campaign to crack down on the folk religion of the Zhuang minority in Ningming County, Chongzuo Prefecture, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, on the border with Vietnam.

In April, Bitter Winter said the Supreme People’s Procuratorate conducted a show trial of six members of the Association of Disciples. The procuratorate claimed that ‘a large number’ of the group’s believers ‘have seriously disrupted the social order,’ according to Bitter Winter. The defendants received sentences ranging from one to four years in prison. [...]

According to International Christian Concern, on May 26, local authorities in Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province, installed three CCTV cameras outside the front door of the Gangfu house church. Church Pastor Ma Chao said the cameras were installed after local police came to the church on May 20, claiming it was under investigation for holding illegal gatherings. During their visit, police interrogated three church elders and photographed the church’s Bibles and hymn books. Ma said police also came to the church in April to inquire concerning his activities. [...]

ChinaAid reported that on July 11, police and religious affairs bureau officials raided the Shenzhen Trinity Harvest Gospel Church in Guangdong Province during an online service and forced Pastor Mao Zhibin and Elder Chu Yanqing to stop the service they were hosting over Zoom.” (USDOS, 15. Mai 2023, Section 2)

Carsten T. Vala ist ein Politikwissenschaftler an der Loyola University Maryland (USA), der sich mit dem Protestantismus in China beschäftigt.

·      Vala, Carsten T., Reading Tea Leaves from the 2021 National Religious Work Conference, 4. Februar 2022
https://www.chinasource.org/resource-library/blog-entries/reading-tea-leaves-from-the-2021-national-religious-work-conference/

„Xi also offers a new twist on familiar terms. ‘Three Self’ or ‘three autonomies’ is one such term. Originally, it meant that Chinese religions had to operate independently of overseas influence, as in ‘self-propagation’ (evangelism without foreign missionary work), ‘self-governance’ (without foreign mission boards), and ‘self-sustenance’ (without overseas financial support). Left unmentioned, of course, was that it would operate with considerable Party involvement. In his 2021 speech, Xi spoke of ‘strengthen[ing]’ the ‘self-education, self-management, and self-discipline’ of religious leaders, to ensure their activities are circumscribed within Party-state bounds – three new twists on autonomy.” (Vala, 4. Februar 2022)

·      Verfassung der Volksrepublik China, 4. Dezember 1982, Fassung vom 11. März 2018 (englische Übersetzung, veröffentlicht vom Nationalen Volkskongress der VR China)
http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/constitution.html#

„Article 36 Citizens of the People's Republic of China shall enjoy freedom of religious belief.

No state organ, social organization or individual shall coerce citizens to believe in or not to believe in any religion, nor shall they discriminate against citizens who believe in or do not believe in any religion. 

The state shall protect normal religious activities. No one shall use religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the state's education system.

Religious groups and religious affairs shall not be subject to control by foreign forces.” (Verfassung der Volksrepublik China, 4. Dezember 1982, Fassung vom 11. März 2018, Artikel 36)

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