Anfragebeantwortung zu Afghanistan: Reisemöglichkeiten von Frauen im Land; Möglichkeiten, allein das Land zu verlassen [a‑12073-2]

15. Februar 2023

Kurzbeschreibungen zu den in dieser Anfragebeantwortung verwendeten Quellen sowie Ausschnitte mit Informationen aus diesen Quellen finden Sie im Anhang.

Die Mahram-Regelungen

Seit August 2021[1] sei es Frauen in Afghanistan laut einem Bericht der feministischen, humanitären Organisation VOICE von November 2022 nicht möglich, sich ohne eine männliche Begleitperson (Mahram)[2] frei im Land zu bewegen. Reisen innerhalb des Landes seien ohne Mahram nicht erlaubt (VOICE, 17. November 2022, S. 19, 24). Mehrere Quellen berichten zwischen Dezember 2021 und Jänner 2023 von Taliban-Richtlinien, die vorsehen, dass Frauen bei Reisen, die weiter als 70 bis 78 Kilometer[3] von ihrem Wohnort entfernt liegen oder über die Landesgrenzen hinausgehen von einem Mahram begleitet werden müssen (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023 S. 15; CARE International, 29. Dezember 2022, S. 5; The Guardian, 15. August 2022; UN Women, 15. August 2022, S. 3; RFE/RL, 28. Februar 2022; Al-Jazeera, 26. Dezember 2021). Im Dezember 2021 berichten Quellen, dass Frauen für Distanzen ab 72 Kilometern Straßenverkehrsmittel nicht ohne Mahram nutzen dürfen. Die entsprechende Richtlinie sei vom Ministerium für die Förderung von Tugend und die Verhinderung von Laster (Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, MPVPV) (Al-Jazeera, 26. Dezember 2021; BBC News, 27. Dezember 2021) im Dezember 2021 erlassen worden (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 15). Laut Al-Jazeera habe die stellvertretende Leiterin von Human Rights Watch (HRW) kritisiert, dass diese Regelung die Bewegungsfreiheit von Frauen einschränke und sie daran hindere, in eine andere Stadt zu reisen, geschäftlich zu reisen oder häuslicher Gewalt zu entkommen (Al-Jazeera, 26. Dezember 2021; siehe auch UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 15).

Umsetzung der Mahram-Regelungen

Einem Artikel der britischen Tageszeitung The Guardian von August 2022 zufolge seien die Mahram-Regelungen stellenweise durchgesetzt worden, während manche Beamte bei allein reisenden Frauen ein Auge zudrücken würden (The Guardian, 15 August 2022). CARE International, ein globales Bündnis von Organisationen, das sich für die Bekämpfung von Armut und sozialer Ungerechtigkeit weltweit einsetzt und den Fokus auf Frauen und Mädchen legt, behandelt in einem Bericht von Dezember 2022 auch die Mahram-Regelung. Die Regelung gelte ebenso für grenzüberschreitende Reisen, Reisen in andere Provinzen und Reisen außerhalb der örtlichen Gemeinde („local community“). Die Umsetzung dieser Richtlinie gestalte sich jedoch lokal unterschiedlich. In manchen Distrikten hätten Frauen berichtet, dass lokale Behörden sie aufgefordert hätten, ohne Mahram das Haus nicht zu verlassen, auch nicht um lokale Märkte aufzusuchen. Die unterschiedliche Umsetzung des Gesetzes schränke die Bewegungsfähigkeit von Frauen weiter ein. Weiters belaste sie Frauen zusätzlich, wenn es darum gehe, zu entscheiden, ob sie das Haus für wichtige Einkäufe, die Arbeit, Reisen oder andere Zwecke verlassen sollen (CARE International, 29. Dezember 2022, S. 5).

Im August 2022 verweist The Guardian auf Berichte aus ganz Afghanistan zu Beschränkungen der Bewegungsfreiheit von Frauen, die weit über die offiziellen Regelungen hinausgehen würden. Frauen seien von Taliban-Kämpfern auch an kurzen Wegen, darunter der Weg zur Arbeit, gehindert worden. In manchem Fällen sei dies indirekt erfolgt, indem Fahrern gedroht worden sei, keine allein reisenden Frauen mitzunehmen. Im Artikel wird eine Frau zitiert, die seit der Taliban-Machtübernahme aus Furcht die unmittelbare Umgebung ihrer Wohnstätte nicht mehr verlasse. Sie habe gehört, dass die Taliban Frauen ohne Mahram mitnehmen würden (The Guardian, 15 August 2022).

Eine weitere Frau schildert gegenüber The Guardian, dass sie gemeinsam mit ihrem Bruder an einem Checkpoint von Taliban-Kämpfern aufgehalten worden sei. Sie seien getrennt voneinander verhört worden, um festzustellen, welches Verwandtschaftsverhältnis sie verbindet. Danach seien sie aufgefordert worden, ihre Identitätsausweise vorzuweise. Da sie diese nicht dabeigehabt hätten, seien die Taliban wütend geworden. Einer der Taliban habe ihren Bruder mit dem Gewehr geschlagen und sei kurz davor gewesen, zu schießen. Nachdem andere Familienmitglieder ihre Ausweise vorbeigebracht hätten, seien sie freigelassen worden. Seither wage sie es nicht mehr, das Haus zu verlassen (The Guardian, 14. August 2022).

Traditionelle Geschlechternormen und eine patriarchale Kultur hätten lange die Diskriminierung von Frauen und Mädchen in Afghanistan verstärkt, so UN OCHA (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 15; siehe auch GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 7-8). In einem im November 2022 veröffentlichten Bericht von CARE International, Afghanistan Gender Capacity (GenCap) und Gender in Humanitarian Action (GiHA) wird erläutert, dass nicht nur die Mahram-Vorgaben die Bewegungsfreiheit von Frauen einschränken würden. Kulturelle Restriktionen hätten die Bewegungsfreiheit von Frauen bereits vor der neuerlichen Machtübernahme der Taliban im August 2021 eingeschränkt (CARE International et al., November 2022). Geschlechterbasierte Einschränkungen und der allgemeine kulturelle Rahmen würden Frauen daran hindern, ihre Wohnstätten ohne männliche Begleitung zu verlassen. Das Gebot der De-facto-Behörden, demzufolge Frauen nur mit Mahram reisen dürfen, gelte zwar nur für Reisen weiter als 78 Kilometer von zu Hause entfernt, allerdings würden die De-facto-Behörden und die Gesellschaft diese Regelung wesentlich strenger auslegen. Dies führe dazu, dass Frauen ohne Mahram oft überhaupt nicht reisen könnten (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 27). Die Umsetzung der Mahram-Regelungen habe Familien davon abgebracht, Frauen zu erlauben, sich außerhalb der Wohnstätte zu bewegen, beschreibt CARE International im Dezember 2022. Manche Teilnehmerinnen der von CARE durchgeführten, semistrukturierten Interviews hätten angemerkt, dass sie sich zuvor wohlgefühlt hätten, wenn sie zum Lebensmittelmarkt einkaufen gegangen seien, ihnen jetzt solche Wege jedoch Sorge und Angst bereiten würden. Sie würden sich zunehmend auf männliche Familienangehörige stützen, wenn es etwa um die Lebensmittelversorgung gehe (CARE International, 29. Dezember 2022, S. 5).

Begleitung durch einen Mahram bei Flugreisen

Des Weiteren nennt das Amt der Vereinten Nationen für die Koordinierung humanitärer Angelegenheiten (UN OCHA) eine im März 2022 erlassene Richtlinie, die besage, dass Frauen auf nationalen und internationalen Flügen von einem Mahram begleitet werden müssen (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 15). Auch Agence France-Presse (AFP) berichtet Ende März 2022 unter Bezugnahme auf Flugfahrtbeamte, dass die Taliban Fluggesellschaften aufgefordert hätten, Frauen ohne Begleitung eines männlichen Verwandten den Zutritt zu Flügen zu verweigern (AFP, 28. März 2022; siehe auch AP, 26. März 2022). Der Presseagentur liege ein Schreiben vor, welches nach einem Treffen zweier Fluggesellschaften und der Flughafen-Einwanderungsbehörde mit Taliban-Vertretern von einem leitenden Beamten der Fluggesellschaft Ariana Afghan verfasst und an das Personal der Fluggesellschaft gerichtet worden sei. Laut dem Schreiben sei es Frauen nicht erlaubt, nationale oder internationale Flüge ohne Begleitung eines männlichen Verwandten anzutreten. Auch zwei Reiseagenturen hätten Ende März 2022 gegenüber AFP bestätigt, die Ausstellung von Flugtickets an allein reisende Frauen eingestellt zu haben. Das MPVPV habe laut AFP jedoch dementiert, eine derartige Richtlinie erlassen zu haben (AFP, 28. März 2022). Im November 2022 berichtete TOLOnews in Verbindung mit Fällen von Frauen, denen in verschiedenen Flughäfen Afghanistans der Flugantritt mangels einer männlichen Begleitung verweigert worden sei, dass auch das Ministerium für Transport und Luftfahrt dementiert habe, einen Erlass erhalten zu haben, der Frauen verbiete ohne männliche Begleitung zu fliegen (TOLOnews, 7. November 2022).

Am 26. März 2022 berichtet die Nachrichtenagentur Associated Press (AP) unter Bezugnahme auf zwei Flughafenbedienstete, dass Dutzende Frauen am Tag zuvor am Kabuler Flughafen von Taliban daran gehindert worden seien, verschiedene in- und ausländische Flüge, darunter Flüge nach Islamabad, Dubai und in die Türkei, anzutreten, weil sie kein Mahram begleitet hätte. Darunter hätten sich auch Doppelstaatsbürgerinnen auf der Rückreise nachhause befunden. Flüge der Linien Kam Air und der staatlichen Ariana Airline seien betroffen gewesen. Am Folgetag hätten einige allein von Kabul nach Herat reisende Frauen die Erlaubnis erhalten, den betreffenden Ariana Airline-Flug anzutreten, der zwischenzeitlich jedoch bereits gestartet habe (AP, 26. März 2022). Unter Bezugnahme auf Passagiere zweier Flüge (nach Islamabad, Pakistan und nach Dubai) schildert auch AFP Ende März, dass einigen allein reisenden Passagierinnen verweigert worden sei, den Flug anzutreten (AFP, 28. März 2022). Am 29. März 2022 berichtet die Los Angeles Times (LA Times) unter Bezugnahme auf Flughafenbedienstete, dass Frauen ohne männliche Begleitung seit 26. März nicht daran gehindert worden seien, Flüge in Kabul anzutreten. Dies sei trotz einer Taliban-Anweisung erfolgt, diesen Frauen das Fliegen nicht zu gestatten. Zwei leitende Flughafenbedienstete hätten diesbezüglich erklärt, dass die entsprechende Taliban-Richtlinie nicht beachtet werde (LA Times, 29. März 2022). In einem Artikel vom 26. August 2022 berichtet Middle East Eye (MEE) wiederum von einer Gruppe von 62 Universitätsstudentinnen, denen am Flughafen mangels verwandter männlicher Begleiter nicht gestattet worden war, einen Flug der Linie Ariana Afghan Airlines nach Qatar anzutreten. Eine der Frauen habe berichtet, dass die Gruppe kurz vor dem Boarding und nach dem Passieren aller fünf Sicherheitschecks von Taliban aufgehalten und für über vier Stunden am Terminal festgehalten worden sei. Die Frauen seien von den Taliban beleidigt und gedemütigt sowie fotografiert und gefilmt worden. Das De-facto-Außenministerium habe sich mit Stand August 2022 nicht zu dem Vorfall geäußert (MEE, 26. August 2022). Im August 2022 zitiert The Guardian eine Frau, die im März 2022 gemeinsam mit 20 bis 30 anderen Frauen daran gehindert worden sei, einen berufsbedingten Flug anzutreten. Ihr zufolge seien einige Wochen lang allein reisende Frauen vom Fliegen abgehalten worden, bevor die betreffende, damals neue Regelung wieder revidiert worden und Frauen wieder erlaubt worden sei, allein zu fliegen (The Guardian, 15 August 2022).

Von Bewegungseinschränkungen besonders betroffene Frauen

Frauen mit Behinderungen und frauengeführte Haushalte seien laut der United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) am stärksten von den Bewegungsbeschränkungen betroffen (UN Women, 15. August 2022, S. 3). Laut einem Bericht vom Dezember 2022 des Global Protection Cluster (GPC) hätten die Bewegungseinschränkungen schwerwiegende Folgen für Frauen, die versuchen, etwas zum Lebensunterhalt ihrer Familien beizutragen, insbesondere für jene Frauen, die Hauptverdienerinnen oder Familienoberhaupte seien (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 2).

The Guardian berichtet, dass sich Frauen, die in Haushalten leben, in denen es keine engen männlichen Verwandten (mehr) gibt, durch die Bewegungseinschränkungen rechtlich in einer Schwebe befinden würden, da sie niemanden hätten, der für sie als Mahram fungieren könne (The Guardian, 15. August 2022). In einem Abschnitt, der Ängste und Befürchtungen von im humanitären Bereich beschäftigten Frauen vor und nach August 2021 behandelt, erwähnt UN OCHA, dass alleinstehende oder geschiedene Frauen ohne Mahram in größerem Maße Belästigung und Beschränkungen der Bewegungsfreiheit ausgesetzt seien (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 25).

Zahlen zur Bewegungsfreiheit binnengeflüchteter Frauen

Im Dezember 2022 veröffentlichte das GPC einen Bericht zu Binnenflüchtlingen in Afghanistan basierend auf 9.243 Erhebungen mit Haushalten (davon 48 Prozent frauengeführte Haushalte), 2.432 Interviews mit Schlüsselinformant·innen (davon 56 Prozent weiblich) und einer Reihe von Fokusgruppendiskussionen in 21 Provinzen bzw. 143 Distrikten (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 12). 12 Prozent der befragten binnenvertriebenen Frauen gaben dem Bericht zufolge an, sich nicht frei bewegen zu können. Als häufigster Grund seien soziokulturelle Barrieren genannt worden, gefolgt von Diskriminierung (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 6-7). Im Zuge der Haushaltserhebungen zwischen Jänner 2022 und Ende September 2022 hätten die meisten Haushalte (90 Prozent) angegeben, dass es ihnen möglich sei, sich frei zu bewegen. Die Daten des dritten Jahresquartals würden darauf hinweisen, dass die Anzahl der Frauen und Mädchen, die angaben, sich frei bewegen zu können, etwas niedriger sei (88 Prozent) als die der männlichen Befragten (92 Prozent). Von den in den ersten drei Quartalen des Jahres 2022 befragten Schlüsselpersonen hätten 78 Prozent der Frauen (und 93 Prozent der Männer) angegeben, sich innerhalb der Gemeinschaft frei bewegen zu können. Dies stelle einen Anstieg im Vergleich zu den Werten im zweiten Quartal dar, wo das nur 63 Prozent der Frauen angegeben hätten (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 7-8). GPC weist weiters auf Folgendes hin: Frauen und Mädchen seien zwar durch die Mahram-Regelungen in ihrer Bewegung eingeschränkt. Die oben genannten Zahlen aus dem Kontext der Binnenvertreibung würden diese Einschränkungen jedoch nicht widerspiegeln. Dies könne mit der subjektiven Wahrnehmung der Befragungsteilnehmerinnen zusammenhängen:

„While freedom of movement of women and girls are restricted due to mahram policy, such restriction is not well captured in protection monitoring, possibly due to the perception of respondents.“ (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 7-8)

Es konnten im Zuge der Recherche für vorliegende Anfragebeantwortung darüber hinaus keine weiteren Erhebungen und Informationen zur Bewegungsfreiheit von binnenvertriebenen Frauen und Mädchen gefunden werden.

Regelungen, die die Bewegungsfreiheit von Frauen und Mädchen in Afghanistan einschränken, bestünden laut dem GPC mit Stand Dezember 2022 trotz Dialog- und Vermittlungsversuchen weiterhin (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 7-8).

 

 

 

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 15. Februar 2023)

AFP – Agence France-Presse: Taliban ban Afghan women from flying without male relative, 28. März 2022
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220328-taliban-ban-afghan-women-from-flying-without-male-relative (verfügbar auf Factiva)

·      Al-Jazeera: No long-distance travel for women without male relative: Taliban, 26. Dezember 2021
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/26/afghanistan-long-distance-travel-women-without-male-escort-taliban

·      AP – Associated Press: Officials: Taliban blocked unaccompanied women from flights, 26. März 2022
https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-travel-business-pakistan-lifestyle-febfbef58116fd063e1a5ef780762e56

·      BBC News: Afghanistan's Taliban ban long-distance road trips for solo women, 27. Dezember 2021
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-59800113?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA

·      CARE International: The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29. Dezember 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/040d70fb-a7f7-4c1a-a07c-bfaca64938e0/Report-Food-crisis_Final-design_28-November-2022.pdf

·      CARE International, GenCap - Afghanistan Gender Capacity, GiHA - Gender in Humanitarian Action: Afghanistan – Inter-agency Rapid Gender Analysis, November 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/c583eec6-54db-4ade-ab43-95f1644c0f0b/Afghanistan%20Inter-agency%20Rapid%20Gender%20Analysis%20.pdf

·      GPC – Global Protection Cluster: Afghanistan; Protection Analysis Update; Update on post conflict and climate-related protection risks trends, Dezember 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/0b7f2af2-bfa2-4030-8325-f1e5260105e2/Afghanistan%20Protection%20Analyis%20Update%20%28PAU%29%20%20November%202022.pdf

·      LA Times – Los Angeles Times: Afghan women traveling alone boarding flights despite ban, 29. März 2022
https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2022-03-29/afghan-women-traveling-alone-boarding-flights-despite-ban

·      MEE – Middle East Eye: Afghanistan: Taliban stops scores of female students from flying to Qatar, 26. August 2022
https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/afghanistan-taliban-female-students-scores-stopped-qatar

·      RFE/RL – Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: Taliban Bans Afghans From Evacuating Amid Massive Security Sweep, 28. Februar 2022
https://www.rferl.org/a/taliban-travel-ban-security/31727723.html

·      The Guardian: ‘I was a policewoman. Now I beg in the street’: life for Afghan women one year after the Taliban took power, 14. August 2022
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/aug/14/life-for-afghan-women-one-year-after-the-taliban-took-power

·      The Guardian: ‘I daren’t go far’ Taliban rules trap women with no male guardian, 15. August 2022
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/15/taliban-rules-trap-afghan-women-no-male-guardian

·      TOLOnews: Women Say They Cannot Leave Country Unless Accompanied By Male, 7. November 2022
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-180653

·      UN OCHA – UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), Jänner 2023
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf

·      UN Women: Gender Alert No. 2 – Women’s Rights in Afghanistan one year after the Taliban take-over, 15. August 2022
https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2022-08/Gender-alert-2-Womens-rights-in-Afghanistan-one-year-after-the-Taliban-take-over-en_0.pdf

·      VOICE: Taking Myself out of the Darkness: Afghan Women Human Rights Defenders’ Fight for Recognition, 17. November 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/32945cac-73e9-4e92-bea5-0c67b6991cca/VOICE-Report-Afghanistan-WHRDs.pdf

 

 

Anhang: Quellenbeschreibungen und Informationen aus ausgewählten Quellen

Al Jazeera ist ein in Qatar ansässiger arabischer Nachrichtensender.

·      Al-Jazeera: No long-distance travel for women without male relative: Taliban, 26. Dezember 2021
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/26/afghanistan-long-distance-travel-women-without-male-escort-taliban

„In Afghanistan, the Taliban authorities say women seeking to travel long distances should not be allowed on road transport unless they are accompanied by a close male relative.

The guidance issued on Sunday by the Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, which also called on vehicle owners to refuse rides to women not wearing headscarves, has drawn condemnation from rights activists. […]

‘Women travelling for more than 72km (45 miles) should not be offered a ride if they are not accompanied by a close family member,’ ministry spokesman Sadeq Akif Muhajir said, specifying that the companion must be male. […]

Human Rights Watch has slammed the guidance.

‘This new order essentially moves … further in the direction of making women prisoners,’ Heather Barr, the group’s associate director of women’s rights, told the AFP news agency.

It ‘shuts off opportunities for them to be able to move about freely, to travel to another city, to do business, (or) to be able to flee if they are facing violence in the home,’ Barr added.“ (Al-Jazeera, 26. Dezember 2021)

Associated Press (AP) ist eine in New York ansässige Nachrichtenagentur.

·      AP – Associated Press: Officials: Taliban blocked unaccompanied women from flights, 26. März 2022
https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-travel-business-pakistan-lifestyle-febfbef58116fd063e1a5ef780762e56

„Afghanistan’s Taliban rulers refused to allow dozens of women to board several flights, including some overseas, because they were traveling without a male guardian, two Afghan airline officials said Saturday.

The officials, who spoke on condition of anonymity for fear of repercussions from the Taliban, said dozens of women who arrived at Kabul’s international airport Friday to board domestic and international flights were told they couldn’t do so without a male guardian.

Some of the women were dual nationals returning to their homes overseas, including some from Canada, according to one of the officials. Women were denied boarding on flights to Islamabad, Dubai and Turkey on Kam Air and the state-owned Ariana Airline, said the officials.

The order came from the Taliban leadership, said one official.

By Saturday, some women traveling alone were given permission to board an Ariana Airlines flight to western Herat province, the official said. However, by the time the permission was granted they had missed their flight, he said.

The airport’s president and police chief, both from the Taliban movement and both Islamic clerics, were meeting Saturday with airline officials.“ (AP, 26. März 2022)

BBC News, eine Abteilung der British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) mit Hauptsitz in London, ist ein öffentlich-rechtlicher Rundfunksender, der Nachrichten sammelt und veröffentlicht.

·      BBC News: Afghanistan's Taliban ban long-distance road trips for solo women, 27. Dezember 2021
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-59800113?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA

„The Taliban have said Afghan women seeking to travel long distances by road should be offered transport only if accompanied by a male relative. […]

The latest directive, issued by the Taliban's Ministry of Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, said women travelling for more than 45 miles (72km) should be accompanied by a close male family member.

The document calls on vehicle owners to refuse rides to women not wearing Islamic head or face coverings, although it does not say which type of covering to use. Most Afghan women already wear headscarves.“ (BBC News, 27. Dezember 2021)

CARE International ist ein globales Bündnis von Organisationen, das sich für die Bekämpfung von Armut und sozialer Ungerechtigkeit weltweit einsetzt und den Fokus auf Frauen und Mädchen legt.

·      CARE International: The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, November 2022, 29. Dezember 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/040d70fb-a7f7-4c1a-a07c-bfaca64938e0/Report-Food-crisis_Final-design_28-November-2022.pdf

„Under the current policies of de-facto authorities, women are required to travel with a mahram (male guardian) when travelling more than 70 kilometres away from their homes. This also applies while travelling abroad, to another province or district, or travelling outside of their local community. However, the application of this policy varies from place to place. In some districts, women reported that that they had been told by the local authorities not to travel outside of their homes, even to local markets, without a mahram. The discrepancy in the application of this law at the local level further inhibits women’s movement and creates additional stress on women when deciding whether to leave their homes for essential goods, work, travel, or other purposes.

The enforcement of mahram policies has dissuaded families from allowing women to travel outside of the home. As a result, women’s access to food has been significantly restricted. Some participants to semi-structured interviews CARE conducted noted that they used to be comfortable going to markets to buy food, but now have anxiety and fear about such movements. As a result, families, and women are reducing their movement outside of the house, and are relying more on other male family members to manage food-related tasks.

‘I used to go to the market after work every day. I went to buy the vegetables and I knew the best places to buy flour and rice. But now, I’m just scared to go outside. I don’t know if someone is going to say something to me. I don’t want to get in trouble. So, I send my son or my husband now.’ (Woman, male-headed household, Kabul)“ (CARE International, 29. Dezember 2022, S. 5)

·      CARE International, GenCap - Afghanistan Gender Capacity, GiHA - Gender in Humanitarian Action: Afghanistan; Inter-agency Rapid Gender Analysis; November 2022, November 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/c583eec6-54db-4ade-ab43-95f1644c0f0b/Afghanistan%20Inter-agency%20Rapid%20Gender%20Analysis%20.pdf

„Mahram requirements are not the only movement restrictions women face, and it is worth noting that cultural restrictions were already limiting women’s movements prior to August 2021. As of the end of 2021, 49 per cent of women said they were free to move within the community, down from 61 per cent in Q3 2021.” (CARE International et al., November 2022)

Das Global Protection Cluster (GPC) ist ein Netzwerk von Nichtregierungsorganisationen, internationalen Organisationen und UN Organisationen, die im Bereich Schutz in humanitären Krisen tätig sind.

·      GPC – Global Protection Cluster: Afghanistan; Protection Analysis Update; Update on post conflict and climate-related protection risks trends; December 2022, Dezember 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/0b7f2af2-bfa2-4030-8325-f1e5260105e2/Afghanistan%20Protection%20Analyis%20Update%20%28PAU%29%20%20November%202022.pdf

„The limitations on movement of women go far beyond the mere issue of ability to move, and present grave implications for women who are struggling to support their families, especially those women who are breadwinners or the heads of their families.“ (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 2)

„Lack of economic opportunity was still seen as one of the main safety issues, both for men and women, and economic destitution as the main reason both women and men did not feel safe. For women this is linked to restrictions on their freedom of movement and women’s inability to work under the new regime, including in the context of restrictions such as dress code and mahram requirements. Indeed 12% of women also mentioned that they could not move freely. The main reason cited for women not being able to circulate was socio-cultural barriers, while the second reason was discrimination. This shows gender specific issues in movement, impacting women’s safety and more broadly women’s access to services.“ (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 6-7)

„Movement restriction policies for women and girls continue to remain unchanged despite of the dialogs and advocacy. As a result, female headed families have reported increasing social and cultural barriers that restrict their access to livelihoods and access to basic services increasing their vulnerability.

Overall, from January 2022 to the end of the third quarter, most of the respondents from the HHAs [household assessments] indicated that it is possible for them to move freely (90%). However, the data from the third quarters shows that the percentage of women ang [sic] girls who indicate that they can move freely is slightly lower (88%) compared to male respondents (92%). This expression of ability [to] move has remained stable amongst the two different gender groups over the three quarters of the year. While freedom of movement of women and girls are restricted due to mahram policy, such restriction is not well captured in protection monitoring, possibly due to the perception of respondents.

The reasons cited by male and female respondents for not being able to move freely are broadly similar, although while socio-cultural barriers feature as the top reason cited by female respondents the link to debt related safety concerns are evident in the responses of male respondents. It is notable, that lack of documentation is a reason impeding movement cited by female respondents. While factors, denoted in above graph, are broadly evident amongst the different population groups, lack of documentation is also cited as reason affecting movement by several of the population groups, including male respondents.

While the majority of persons do not have issues with freedom of movement, there is evidence that persons with specific profiles may face a higher level of risk in Afghanistan, including in relation to freedom of movement. The above findings also lend support to the report of the UN Special Rapporteur for Afghanistan related to discrimination and the situation of women and girls. It is also the case that socio-cultural factors, which are likely to include the restrictions on women and girls are impacting on freedom of movement.

Like the findings from HHAs [household assessments], data generated through KIIs confirms that through the first three quarters of 2022 persons do not indicate a major problem with freedom of movement (78% of females and 93% of males indicate they can move freely) within the community. In addition, since the second quarter, where 63% of female respondents indicated that they could move freely, there is a significant increase in the percentage of women indicating that they do not have a problem with movement. On the other hand, male respondents have consistently reported a high ability to move freely over the three quarters of 2022.“ (GPC, Dezember 2022, S. 7-8)

Die Los Angeles Times (LA Times) ist eine US-amerikanische Tageszeitung.

·      LA Times – Los Angeles Times: Afghan women traveling alone boarding flights despite ban, 29. März 2022
https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2022-03-29/afghan-women-traveling-alone-boarding-flights-despite-ban

„Afghan women unaccompanied by a male guardian have been allowed to board aircraft in the capital of Kabul since Saturday, airport officials said Tuesday, despite a Taliban order banning them from flying.

There has been no official reversal of the order by the hard-liners in the Taliban leadership, who have been crafting increasingly repressive edicts.

A senior airport official told the Associated Press on Tuesday that it is business as usual for women traveling alone, a sign that at least some of the orders coming from a conflicted Taliban leadership are being ignored.

The official spoke on condition of anonymity because he was not authorized to speak to the media and he feared retaliation from the Taliban leadership. A second senior Taliban official also confirmed that the order was being ignored. That official also spoke on condition of anonymity for the same reasons.“ (LA Times, 29. März 2022)

Middle East Eye (MEE) ist eine in London ansässige, unabhängig finanzierte Online-Nachrichtenorganisation, die Artikel freiberuflicher Journalist·innen und Beiträge von Think Tanks veröffentlicht.

·      MEE – Middle East Eye: Afghanistan: Taliban stops scores of female students from flying to Qatar, 26. August 2022
https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/afghanistan-taliban-female-students-scores-stopped-qatar

„Scores of female Afghan university students have been prevented from boarding a flight to Qatar by the Taliban, who were reportedly upset that the young women were not travelling with male guardians.

The news was first reported by local media on Thursday evening and then confirmed to Middle East Eye by sources in Kabul and the Gulf.

The Taliban’s foreign ministry has not yet responded to requests for comment. […]

One of the women, speaking on condition of anonymity for fear of repercussions, said 120 students arrived at the airport early Thursday morning. The 17-year-old confirmed that the group had passed through all five security checks at the airport and received exit stamps, but the girls in the group were ultimately not allowed to board the chartered Ariana Afghan Airlines flight.

‘Then, suddenly we were near the airplane stairs when the Taliban stopped us from boarding. They locked us in the terminal for more than four hours. They insulted and humiliated us, they even took our videos and pictures,’ she said.

In total, she said 62 female students were sent home by Taliban forces on Thursday.“ (MEE, 26. August 2022)

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) ist ein vom US-amerikanischen Kongress finanzierter Rundfunkveranstalter.

·      RFE/RL – Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: Taliban Bans Afghans From Evacuating Amid Massive Security Sweep, 28. Februar 2022
https://www.rferl.org/a/taliban-travel-ban-security/31727723.html

„Women will also not be able to fly abroad unless accompanied by a male relative -- mirroring similar domestic restrictions introduced last year that bar solo travel for women between cities and towns.

‘If they (women) want to travel abroad, they should have a chaperone,’ Mujahid said. ‘This is the order of Islamic Shari'a law.’“ (RFE/RL, 28. Februar 2022)

The Guardian ist eine britische Tageszeitung.

·      The Guardian: ‘I was a policewoman. Now I beg in the street’: life for Afghan women one year after the Taliban took power, 14. August 2022
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/aug/14/life-for-afghan-women-one-year-after-the-taliban-took-power

„Travel restrictions

Zarlasht, Kabul

In June, I was travelling with my brother and we were stopped at a checkpoint by Taliban fighters. Firstly, they questioned us separately to understand if we were related to each other, then they asked for our national ID cards. When my brother said we didn’t carry our ID cards with us, they got angry and one of them hit him with a rifle and was about to fire. We were made to sit there for two hours, and then we had to call our families to bring ID cards so we could return home. Since then, I do not dare to leave the house.“ (The Guardian, 14. August 2022)

·      The Guardian: ‘I daren’t go far’ Taliban rules trap women with no male guardian, 15. August 2022
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/15/taliban-rules-trap-afghan-women-no-male-guardian

„Most Afghan women have had to learn to endure new restrictions and controls over the last year, but there is one group whose lives have been particularly curtailed.

Women who live in households without a close male relative, whether through tragedy, circumstance or choice, now exist in a legal limbo, because they do not have a close male relative to act as a mahram, or ‚guardian‘. […]

Officially, any woman travelling more than 75km (46 miles) or leaving the country needs a mahram. […]

The rules have been enforced sporadically, with some officials turning a blind eye to solo travel. Raihana* was barred from boarding a plane earlier this year for a work trip but says women have since been allowed back in the air alone.

‘It was in March, they had just circulated the new notice that no woman can travel to another city without a mahram. I wasn’t allowed to board the plane, and had to wait in the airport for two to three hours, with 20 or 30 other women,’ she said. ‘This went on for a few weeks then they abolished [the rule]. Now we can travel again.’

But many others across Afghanistan have reported restrictions on women’s movements that go far beyond the official regulations. They told the Guardian that Taliban fighters have barred them from even short journeys, including commuting to work, sometimes using indirect tactics such as threatening drivers who take solo female passengers.

Health workers said they had personal experience of women being barred from accessing medical help without a mahram in at least two districts, one in central Afghanistan’s Bamiyan province and one in southern Helmand.

These extreme controls fuel the fears of women such as Wazhma, even about journeys that should be legal, like taking her mother to hospital in Kabul.

‘Because of my mother’s situation I want to take her abroad to a better hospital, but I don’t dare to. I know that if I travel far they are likely to stop me,’ she said, adding that she found the situation unbearable. […]

Students who have won scholarships abroad are consumed with anxiety about whether they will be allowed to board their flights without a mahram, group WhatsApp chats shared with the Guardian showed.

A husband, brother, father, son or nephew can fulfil the role of mahram. But after decades of war, Afghanistan has an estimated 2 million widows who may not have a living father, brother or son able or willing to serve as their mahram. Divorced and unmarried women face similar problems. […]

Hasina used to make a decent living as a tailor but struggles now because she is frightened of going out on her own. ‘I wait for clients to come here so I can sew their clothes at home,’ she says. Inevitably her income has dropped.

‘I don’t dare go far from this street, and I haven’t been beyond this area since the Taliban came. I heard that when they find out about families without a mahram, they are taking women away. Even if I found a job outside the home I wouldn’t take it.‘“ (The Guardian, 15 August 2022)

TOLOnews ist ein afghanischer Nachrichtensender.

·      TOLOnews: Women Say They Cannot Leave Country Unless Accompanied By Male, 7. November 2022
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-180653

„Some women complained that they are facing challenges when they attempt to travel abroad, and said that they have lost their flights due to a lack of a male accompanying them.

The women said that they were not allowed to take flights from Kabul airport as well as other airports around the country.

‘They didn’t allow me to go out of the country because I was alone and had no guardian. After some effort, I had my father come as a companion with me,’ said Khorsheed, an Afghan citizen, who is now out of the country.

‘They held our passports until the flight time was over. Then they gave us our passports and said to go home,’ said Mariam, an Afghan citizen living abroad.

Political analysts said that traveling without a male guardian in the current situation is not against sharia rules.

‘The top scholars said that a woman can travel among the women whose number is large and there is no threat to their security, safety and privacy,’ said Hassan Haqyar, a political analyst.

The Ministry of Transportation and Aviation said that it has not received any decree regarding the prohibition of women traveling without a male accompanying them.

‘Such a decree has not been sent to our ministry to clarify which passengers must be allowed and which passenger should be prevented,’ said Imamuddin Ahmadi, a spokesman for the ministry.“ (TOLOnews, 7. November 2022)

UN OCHA ist das Amt der Vereinten Nationen für die Koordinierung humanitärer Angelegenheiten (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs).

·      UN OCHA – UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), Jänner 2023
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf

„Traditional gender norms and patriarchal culture have long reinforced discrimination against women and girls in Afghanistan, increasing their vulnerability and decreasing their capacity to recover from shocks, and leaving them disproportionately affected during crises. In addition to gender, inequities by location, wealth and legal status are acute, as are those related to age, ability, ethnicity, civil status, and sexual orientation. Together, these intersecting identities shape people’s access (or lack thereof) to basic services, decision making, representation, information, resources and protection.

DFA [de facto authorities] directives restricting women’s involvement in social and economic life issued since the takeover in 2021 include:

• Suspension of secondary education for girls beyond grade six (September 2021)

• Requiring women to be accompanied by a male relative (mahram) for travel 78 km or further from their home (December 2021)

• Requiring women to be accompanied by mahram during domestic or international flights (March 2022)“ (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 15)

„Prior to the above directive, Gender in Humanitarian Action (GiHA) and the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) reported that many women humanitarian workers were afraid to work. Unclear and inconsistent policies and accountability by the DFA [de facto authorities] , particularly in remote areas, compounded this fear and have led to caution around changing policies. Even earlier, prior to the 2021 takeover, 71 per cent of women aid workers felt that they were at increased risk, including women from minority groups (especially Hazara and Shi’a women at risk of additional discriminatory restrictions, targeted killings, disappearances or severe harassment), single or divorced women (who may face greater harassment or limits on freedom of movement in the absence of a mahram), and staff who work on GBV, human rights or protection programming – both men and women – due to sensitivities around these topics and lack of community acceptance.“ (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 25)

„Gender restrictions and the broader cultural context prevent women in need of humanitarian assistance from leaving their homes without a male guardian, therefore creating additional barriers in reaching distribution points, obtaining information on humanitarian assistance, or voicing their concerns and advising of their humanitarian needs. Although the DFA’s [de facto authorities] formal requirement regarding travel with a mahram is for women to be accompanied more than 78 km from home, this is often interpreted by the DFA [de facto authorities] and community much more strictly, meaning that women are often unable to travel anywhere at all without a mahram.“ (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 27)

„All people, but particularly, women and girls in rural areas generally face greater barriers accessing services due to the unavailability of services, the physical distance to reach them, and lack of personal safety when travelling to reach them. […]

Other barriers exist, such as identification documents: 24 per cent of rural households reported no women or girls in their household having civil identification, versus 5 per cent of urban households (WoAA), which impacts on the ability to access public service, show ownership of access, travel between provinces, etc.“ (UN OCHA, Jänner 2023, S. 42-43)

Die United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) ist das mit Geschlechtergleichstellung und Empowerment befasste UNO-Organ.

·      UN Women: Gender Alert No. 2 – Women’s Rights in Afghanistan one year after the Taliban take-over, 15. August 2022
https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2022-08/Gender-alert-2-Womens-rights-in-Afghanistan-one-year-after-the-Taliban-take-over-en_0.pdf

„On 7 May 2022 the de facto authorities issued a directive requiring all women to wear Islamic hijab and fully cover their faces except the eyes when outside the house. […] Earlier decrees related to freedom of movement, escalating in severity, included requiring a mahram (male relative chaperone) to travel With women for any trips further than 45 miles from home or on any domes- tic or international air travel, hijab requirements, and various decrees requiring gender segregation in public spaces. These restrictions remove women's agency where gains in women's access to public life were just starting to take hold. Women living With disabilities and female-headed households are the most impacted by the mobility restrictions.“ (UN Women, 15. August 2022, S. 3)

VOICE ist eine humanitäre Organisation mit feministischem Anspruch.

·      VOICE: Taking Myself out of the Darkness: Afghan Women Human Rights Defenders’ Fight for Recognition, 17. November 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/32945cac-73e9-4e92-bea5-0c67b6991cca/VOICE-Report-Afghanistan-WHRDs.pdf

„Since August 2021, the progress made by Afghan women in the past 20 years has been destroyed. Women are banned from attending school, holding jobs, and participating in politics, and they cannot move freely without a male chaperone, or mahram. Multiple WHRDs noted that civic activities without explicit approval by the Taliban are completely banned within Afghanistan.” (VOICE, 17. November 2022, S. 19

„Women within the country are not allowed to travel without mahram and, as such, often face difficulty traveling to receive healthcare.“ (VOICE, 17. November 2022, S. 24)