Children in Uganda are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. (1,2) Children also perform dangerous tasks in gold mining. (3,4) Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Uganda.

Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2017, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022. (5)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Labour Force Survey (LFS), 2016–2017. (6)

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

Traffickers exploit Ugandan boys and girls in forced labor and sex trafficking in Uganda and abroad, with children increasingly at risk due to COVID-19 pandemic-related school closures. (2,12,17,18) They routinely use false job opportunities to lure children from rural areas to urban areas and subsequently exploit the children in forced labor or sex trafficking. Traffickers also exploit Ugandan children in forced labor and sex trafficking in neighboring countries, such as Kenya and Somalia, and in the Middle East and South Asia. (16-20) Children from rural areas, especially the Karamoja region, are vulnerable to human trafficking, and at times willingly migrate to Kampala and other urban centers, where they are forced into begging, street vending, domestic work, or commercial sexual exploitation. (12,16,21) NGO and media reports have indicated that children from Karamoja are sold in open-air markets or through intermediaries and forced into domestic work, begging, cattle herding, and commercial sexual exploitation. (1,2,22) Well-organized networks of traffickers force children into street begging and girls into commercial sexual exploitation. Traffickers often physically abuse children for failing to collect a designated amount of money. (2,21) Traffickers also exploit children from neighboring countries, including Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania, in forced agricultural labor, domestic servitude, and commercial sexual exploitation in Uganda. (2,18,21)

Child labor rates in general in Uganda have also seen an increase over the course of the pandemic. (12) During the reporting period, the Uganda Bureau of Labor Statistics released its 2019–2020 National Household Survey, which includes a component on child labor. The survey found that, as a result of school closures, child labor rates for children between the ages of 5 and 17 increased from 14 percent prior to the pandemic to 22 percent since the start of the pandemic, to a total of 2,702,000 children. (23) Child labor rates in rural areas nearly doubled as a result of the pandemic, and the prevalence of children working in markets, on farms, in mines, and as domestic workers, as well as children used for commercial sexual exploitation, increased. (9-12)

The Bureau also released a baseline study in cooperation with the End Child Labor in Tobacco Growing Foundation measuring child labor rates in the western districts of Hoima and Kikuube, which found that 3 out of 10 children between the ages of 4 and 17 were involved in some form of hazardous labor, and that over 30 percent of children between the ages of 5 and 17 were combining school with work (averaging 22 hours of work per week). (12,24) Children were found to be working in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors, including 18 percent of working children involved in commercial crop farming of tea, tobacco, sugarcane, and rice, among others. (12,24)

In yet another study, the Bureau partnered with UN Women to measure violence against children ages 10 to 14 and found that 39 percent were involved in hazardous work. The study noted that in northern Uganda, this rate was as high as 74 percent. (12)

In other parts of the country, girls worked in gold mines in Karamoja in northern Uganda, and boys grazed cattle in Rwenzori in western Uganda. Meanwhile, children in the Bidibidi refugee settlement in northwestern Uganda were engaged in hazardous labor, including working on farms and as domestic workers, which may include working long hours and physical, verbal, and sexual abuse. (9,25)

While Ugandan law provides for free primary education, the cost of school supplies, uniforms, and other materials often prohibits children from attending school. (1,4,26) Research also found that children experience physical and sexual abuse at school by teachers and classmates. (27) Furthermore, a lack of teachers and school infrastructure and poor transportation in remote rural areas have created barriers to children's access to education. (1,13,28) Although the Government of Uganda implemented alternative instruction strategies due to the COVID-19 shutdown–such as printed materials and radio and televised instruction–poor, rural, and vulnerable children were less likely to be able to access the alternative resources. (9,11,12)

Laws on free primary education apply equally to refugee children, but refugee children are often not enrolled in or not attending school. Girls, especially those in refugee camps, are at particular risk of being out of school and vulnerable to exploitation due to pressure to undertake domestic duties, gender-based violence, and harassment. (20,29,30) In addition to the same obstacles faced by Ugandan children, refugee children may face discrimination from fellow pupils and teachers due to their refugee status, and they may also experience language barriers. (31) For a number of refugee settlements, such as Nakivale, schools are often located far from where refugees live and are inadequately equipped to meet the needs of the large student population. (32)

Uganda has ratified most key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Uganda’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including the lack of free basic education guaranteed by law.

* Country has no conscription (40) 
‡ Age calculated based on available information (26) 

After delays due to the pandemic, the government resumed its efforts to harmonize its legal provisions, and during the reporting period the Cabinet passed the Principles for the Amendment of the Employment Act. (12) The First Parliamentary Council is now drafting the bill, which includes measures to expand protections to informal, domestic, and migrant workers. The bill would also prohibit the hiring of children under the age of 16 as domestic workers. (12,41,42)

Uganda’s existing legal framework governing child labor does not meet international standards on a number of points. While Uganda has a list of hazardous occupations prohibited to children under the age of 18, Section 8 of the Employment of Children Regulations permits a commissioner to allow children age 12 and older enrolled in an educational training or apprenticeship program to engage in hazardous work, in violation of international standards. (35)  Children in Uganda are required to attend school only up to age 13. (26) This standard makes children ages 13 to 15 vulnerable to child labor because they are not required to attend school but are not legally permitted to work. Finally, although Uganda has adopted policies to extend universal education through secondary level, by law free education is limited to the primary level. (26,44)

The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the authority of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2021, labor law enforcement agencies in Uganda took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the authority of the Ministry of Gender, Labor, and Social Development (MGLSD) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including the ability to assess penalties.

While the labor inspectorate continued to carry out inspections during the reporting period, restrictions on movement and staff shortages due to the pandemic presented increased difficulties. (12) In addition to pandemic-related challenges, a local NGO has indicated that the inspectorate also faces funding issues and corruption at the local level, which often prevents labor inspectors from carrying out their duties. (12) During the reporting period, the government's Uganda Child Helpline helped identify 175 cases of child labor, primarily in domestic work. However, the government did not provide comprehensive data on the number of child labor violations identified through inspections, or the number of penalties applied and assessed for child labor violations. (12)

The MGLSD provided training to 40 labor inspectors in 2021, though it is not clear if this training included components on child labor. (12) Nonetheless, research has shown that training in general is not sufficient because labor inspectors lack the expertise to follow through on child labor cases. (1,12) Furthermore, labor unions have noted that the number of inspections is insufficient and that inspections are only carried out when complaints are received. Labor inspectors in Uganda have the authority to inspect private farms and residences, but the MGLSD has noted that inspectors rarely exercise this authority despite the prevalence of child domestic work in the country. (1)

The number of labor inspectors is still likely insufficient for the size of Uganda’s workforce, which includes more than 17.3 million workers. According to the ILO’s technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 40,000 workers in less developed countries, Uganda would need to employ about 434 inspectors. (49) Uganda now has 173 labor officers to cover its 135 districts, but due to budgetary limitations and a lack of labor inspection prioritization at the district level, these officers did not have sufficient funds to regularly carry out child labor inspections. (1,9,25,28) Research also found that follow-up inspections rarely happen due to insufficient funding at the district level. (45) Given the lack of resources for inspections, local civil society organizations often train labor inspectors and even assist them in conducting inspections. (13,15)

Uganda is signatory to ILO Convention 81 that requires labor inspection to be placed under the supervision and control of a central authority. (50,51) Research found, however, that coordination among the various agencies responsible for child labor law enforcement remains a challenge because labor officers are under district government authority, rather than under authority of the MGLSD. (52,53) For example, although under the Employment Act labor officers are required to submit monthly reports, in practice, the MGLSD does not receive labor reports from districts. (45)

Research found that child labor cases rarely reach the Industrial Court because of poor monitoring and the court's limited access to communities outside urban centers, where child labor is most likely to occur. (51) Overall, the government’s enforcement and penalization of labor laws was inadequate, particularly in the informal sector in which most children work. (54)

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2021, criminal law enforcement agencies in Uganda took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including official complicity in the commercial sexual exploitation of children.

Due to the pandemic, officials indicated that the nationwide shutdown complicated criminal law enforcement efforts related to the worst forms of child labor. (12) Nonetheless, criminal law enforcement agencies indicated they were able to secure an increase in convictions related to the worst forms of child labor as a result of training provided to prosecutors and officers from the Human Trafficking Institute. In addition to securing sentences ranging from 3.5 to 15 years in prison and financial restitution, prosecutors also obtained the first ever life sentence for child trafficking in Uganda for a boarding school headmaster charged on multiple counts of exploiting boys in his school. (12) Furthermore, Ugandan police working in collaboration with Kenyan authorities, identified a 10-year-old Ugandan girl trafficked to Kenya for forced domestic labor. Ugandan authorities eventually arrested three individuals responsible for managing a human trafficking network that trafficked girls out of Uganda to Kenya. (17) The government reported identifying 371 victims of the worst forms of child labor, though it is not clear if this number represents the totality of all cases during the reporting period. (17) Similarly, the government did not provide disaggregated data for the number of investigations, prosecutions, or convictions related to the worst forms of child labor.

Law enforcement agencies and civil society organizations have acknowledged that immigration officials are complicit and involved in human trafficking, including the trafficking of children. (2,16,17) Research has also found that some police are allegedly complicit in the commercial sexual exploitation of child refugees. Other high-level government officials own or are associated with labor recruitment companies and networks of traffickers that engage in child trafficking. (2,16,19,55) The involvement of government officials in human trafficking networks has significantly impeded operations against the worst forms of child labor. (2) Uganda's State House Anti-Corruption Unit, which works on human trafficking issues on an ad hoc basis, has initiated some investigations related to official complicity in human trafficking, but has not made any of these reports public. (19,21)

However, in 2021, the government took steps to investigate, prosecute, convict, and sentence officials complicit in human trafficking, including for cases of commercial sexual exploitation of children. One case investigated in 2020 involving an officer from the Uganda People's Defense Forces resulted in a plea bargain in 2021 and a 6-year sentence on charges of aggravated trafficking in children and defilement, as well as commercial sexual exploitation. (12,17) In addition, authorities arrested four police officers from the Uganda Police Force and charged them with various trafficking crimes, including one officer charged with aggravated trafficking in children and commercial sexual exploitation. Authorities also arrested two immigration officers in 2021 on charges of promoting and attempted human trafficking. (17) All 6 cases initiated in 2021 are currently pending, with the suspects on bond. Courts typically take up to 2 or 3 years to complete a prosecution. (17,25) Also during the reporting period, the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions indicated that it had initiated investigations into officials at the Entebbe International Airport suspected of facilitating human trafficking in 2021. (17)

According to the government, police officers identify and refer street children to probation officers and civil society organizations to place children in homes and shelters and do not keep them in detention facilities; however, some children may have been housed in juvenile rehabilitation centers because shelters are frequently full. Police intermittently rounded up street children, housed them in children’s homes and shelters for several days while social workers completed background checks and family tracing, and then returned them to their families. (17,56,57) Research found that street children, including potential human trafficking victims and child laborers, have faced conflict with local authorities; however, law enforcement noted in 2020 that police are less likely to detain or beat them, in part as a result of an increased awareness about child protection issues. (25,43,58-60) Nonetheless, reports have indicated that investigators rarely follow up on reports of children involved in domestic work. When child domestic workers complain to their employers about not being paid, the employers may report the children to the police for theft, and police subsequently treat them as criminals rather than as victims who have not been paid for their work. (1)

During the reporting period, the Coordinating Office for Preventing Trafficking in Persons (COPTIP) significantly increased anti-trafficking in persons training opportunities, training over 636 criminal law enforcement officials. COPTIP also trained 60 workers at the Uganda Child Helpline to improve identification of human trafficking cases. (17) Meanwhile, the Uganda Police Force provided training on Uganda anti-trafficking policies to over 500 investigators. (17) However, training of criminal investigators is insufficient, in part due to regular staff turnover and transfers. Some criminal law enforcement officials are not aware of key human trafficking laws, and some officers misclassify cases, conduct insufficient investigations, or encourage victims to accept payment from their traffickers to settle cases. (15,19,21)

The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including inactive mechanisms.

* Mechanism to coordinate efforts to address child labor was created during the reporting period.

The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including inconsistent implementation of national policies throughout the country.

† Policy approved during the reporting period.
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (76)

During the reporting period, the Commissioner for Children and Youth in the MGLSD announced that Uganda would become the first country to develop and implement a National Child Protection Action Plan to address online child sexual exploitation. The funding and development of the plan is expected to occur throughout 2022. (77)

Despite the efforts to develop and implement a national action plan against child labor, because of the decentralized nature of inspections in Uganda, some districts have developed their own labor action plans that do not always reflect MGLSD priorities. (51)

In 2021, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy of efforts to address the problem in all sectors.

† Program is funded by the Government of Uganda.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (81,82)

Although Uganda has implemented programs that address child labor, the scope of these programs is insufficient to fully address the extent of the problem, particularly in mining and commercial sexual exploitation. For example, the government lacks its own facilities to house child victims of labor exploitation or human trafficking and must instead rely on local community services organizations. (1,9) Furthermore, the MGLSD has noted that programs are concentrated in specific districts and thus do not cover child labor issues throughout the country. (1)

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Uganda (Table 11).

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