Children in Somalia are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in armed conflict. (1) Children also perform dangerous tasks in street work. (2,3) Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Somalia. Data on some of these indicators are not available from the sources used in this report. (4) In 2019, the ILO funded Somalia’s first labor force survey, which included sectoral information on child labor and IDPs. The government published the survey in 2021 and is working with the ILO to validate the statistics related to child labor. (4-6)

Primary completion rate was unavailable from UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022. (7) 
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 4 (MICS 4), 2011. (8) 

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

The Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) maintains limited territorial control outside populated areas and some forward operating bases. Al-Shabaab, a non-state armed group, occupies rural areas in south-central Somalia. (9) In other parts of the country, essential governance functions were provided by state administrations, including the Somaliland region in the northwest. (9,14)

In 2021, as in previous years, Somalia recorded one of the world's highest numbers of child abductions by non-state actors. (16-18) State and non-state armed groups recruited at 1,116 children during the reporting period. (18-20) Al-Shabaab, which forcibly recruited children as young as age 8 into its ranks, committed a majority of these violations, recruiting 854 children in 2021. (18-20) Al-Shabaab fighters infiltrate madrassas and mosques, using deception or coercion tactics to forcibly recruit victims, including children, into sexual slavery and combat and support roles. (14) Al-Shabaab also continued the practice of forcing communities to turn over male children to serve as child soldiers, imposing a financial penalty on families who refused to cooperate. (9,14,16,17,21,22) In addition, Al-Shabaab used children to plant explosive devices, act as human shields, conduct assassinations and suicide attacks, gather intelligence, and provide domestic services. Some girls also were forced into sexual servitude. (2,14,23) Somalia’s numerous clan militias also reportedly recruited children for use in armed conflict. (1,14,17) In Somalia, clan membership is often the primary point for social affiliation and community identity. (24) Children from minority clan households are uniquely vulnerable to forced recruitment by military groups, including at school. (25)

The reporting period saw continued allegations of grave violations against children linked to federal and state government security forces, including recruitment and use, killing and maiming, and sexual violence. (16,18,26-28) Perpetrators included federal armed forces and security services, and regional forces and police in Galmudug, Jubaland, and Puntland. (28) In 2021, the UN verified the recruitment and use of children by the Somali Police Force (SPF-75 children recruited), the Somali National Army (SNA-60 children recruited), and the National Intelligence and Security Agency (3 children recruited); Jubaland forces (21 children recruited), Galmudug forces (14 children recruited), Puntland forces (26 children recruited), Jubaland police (2 children recruited), Puntland police (1 child recruited), and Galmudug police (4 children recruited); and clan militia (63 children recruited). (18-20,29,30) Child recruitment is in violation of Somalia's General Order No. 1, which prohibits military personnel from recruiting and employing child soldiers. (14,31)

As Somalia passes its third decade of internal armed conflict, the country's IDP population stands at 2.95 million, with unofficial estimates approaching 3.2 million.  (9,32) IDPs, including children, remain acutely vulnerable to sex trafficking and forced labor. The closure of international borders to contain the COVID-19 pandemic led to an uptick in irregular migration and human trafficking through unofficial border crossings. (33,34) These developments compounded the risks to vulnerable populations, including children. (14,33,34) Many were transited through Nairobi’s Eastleigh neighborhood, a known trafficking hub. Research also found that traffickers exploit children from Somalia in forced begging in Saudi Arabia and Djibouti. (14) In Puntland, hundreds of children allegedly were exploited in forced labor or sex trafficking. (35)

Somalia lacks a countrywide birth registration system, further complicating efforts to identify victims of child labor. (9) Prior to the onset of the pandemic, international partners estimated that Somalia's out-of-school population was 3 million, or approximately 60 percent of the school-age population, which is among the highest rates in the world. (36,37) Access to education further deteriorated amidst recurrent climate shocks, protracted violence, and pandemic-related lockdowns. State and non-state forces occupied and damaged schools, further limiting access to educational facilities. (16) The limited number of public schools outside of Mogadishu and high fees charged by private schools also undercut enrollment rates. (9,25) Girls faced additional obstacles, including lower prioritization of girls’ education and insufficient female teachers, which negatively affected girls’ attendance and learning. (2,38)

Pastoralist communities, which account for approximately 25 percent of Somalia’s population, faced additional impediments to education, as their nomadic existence makes static schools impractical. The primary enrollment rate for nomadic or pastoralist children was 3.1 percent. (2) Children and youth among these groups are considered at high risk of exploitation or recruitment into armed groups such as al-Shabaab. (9,25) For many IDP children, nearby schools do not exist; even where donors build temporary learning spaces, IDP children typically experienced disrupted education due to constant movement and unpredictable evictions from their camp homes. (2) Drought conditions and water scarcity likely exacerbated children's vulnerability to recruitment by armed groups and other worst forms of child labor. UNICEF estimates that as many as 420,000 children living under drought conditions were at risk of leaving school. (39)

Somalia has ratified some key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Somalia’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including prohibiting the recruitment and use of children under age 18 in armed conflict.

‡ Age calculated based on available information (44) 

It is unclear whether laws enacted prior to the 1991 civil war are still in effect in Somalia. However, in 2014, Parliament issued a public statement citing some pre-1991 laws, which suggests that the FGS continued to recognize relevant historic laws. (5) The Federal Member States (FMS), which are semi-autonomous regions, maintain separate legal systems. (45) Nevertheless, the FGS asserts that the 1972 Labor Code, the Provisional Constitution, and newly enacted laws apply nationally. (2) Officials in the Somaliland region, which has self-declared independence from the FGS, have criminalized human trafficking for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and have a draft trafficking in persons law that is pending parliamentary approval. (2,34,46,47)

In 2021, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOLSA) finished drafting a National Labor Code; the legislation awaits ratification in the upper house of Parliament. (2,5,9,48) The draft Labor Code prohibits forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict, however Somalia currently lacks a legal standard prohibiting the recruitment of children by non-state armed groups. (38) During the reporting period, the Ministry of Women and Human Rights Development also drafted the Child Rights Bill, which will bring Somalia’s legal framework into alignment with the Convention on the Rights of the Child. (5,21) The law will protect all children under age 18 from prosecution as an adult and will codify a compulsory education age. (5) It is awaiting cabinet-level approval. (2) Currently, however, the gap between the end of compulsory education and the minimum age for work leaves children age 14 vulnerable to child labor because they are not required to attend school but may not legally work. (13,44)

Although the Provisional Constitution of 2012 does not provide a minimum age for employment, the 1972 Labor Code establishes age 15 as the minimum age for work. (40) Moreover, although the Labor Code establishes age 12 as the minimum age for light work and describes the conditions under which it may be undertaken, it neither determines the activities in which light work may be permitted nor prescribes the number of hours per week for light work. Furthermore, there is no comprehensive legislation that identifies hazardous occupations and activities for children. (40) While the 1972 Labor Code enables the publication of a hazardous works list, the government has not determined by regulation the types of hazardous work prohibited for children. (9,40)

The FGS lacks legislation prohibiting human trafficking, including of children, or the use of children in illicit activities. Laws prohibiting the commercial sexual exploitation of children also are not sufficient because the use, procuring, and offering of a child for prostitution, pornography, and pornographic performances are not criminally prohibited.(40) Furthermore, it appears that under Article 405 of the Criminal Code, children involved in prostitution are not protected from criminal charges. The Penal Code requires extensive updating, an effort that the international community has attempted to support without success. (40) Many fines in the Criminal Code equal less than $1, which does not serve as an effective deterrent. (2,43,49)

The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2021, labor law enforcement agencies in Somalia took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, the absence of worksite inspections conducted at the national level in Somalia may have impeded the enforcement of child labor laws.

MOLSA formally established a labor inspectorate in 2020, hiring and training 35 inspectors for its Banaadir regional office. (2)  However, the number of labor inspectors remains insufficient for the size of the Somali workforce, which includes nearly 3 million workers. According to the ILO's technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 40,000 workers in less developed economies, Somalia would employ about 75 inspectors. (56,57) MOLSA's mandate allows for inspections based on requests sent by other authorities such as the police, and inspectors are authorized to issue fines indirectly upon approval of a senior advisor in the ministry. However, the labor inspectorate does not have any dedicated funding and research indicates that there were no labor inspections conducted in 2021.(2)

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2021, criminal law enforcement agencies in Somalia took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including insufficient financial resources.

In 2021, the FGS Attorney General’s Office undertook investigations and prosecuted 9 cases of forced labor, involving 30 defendants under the Somali Penal Code; however, research could not confirm the ages of the individuals subjected to forced labor to determine whether these cases were related to the worst forms of child labor. (51) In addition, in July 2021, the IOM reported that approximately 20 girls ages 14 to 16 were referred to Somali immigration authorities as potential trafficking victims. (51) The authorities found the girls' families and returned them to their relatives. However, Somalia lacks a standardized system to effectively respond to these types of cases. (51) The government, working with UNICEF and other NGOs, has established a limited mechanism for case management, family tracing and reunification, and the provision of social services in response to trafficking in persons and other related worst forms of child labor. (34,58)

In December 2021, the Somali Police Force’s Criminal Investigation Department, with USDOS funding, established two new anti-trafficking units, one in Garowe, Puntland and one in Baidoa, South West State. (51) Between November 27 and December 2, 2021, investigators assigned to these units completed UNODC-delivered training on the investigation of trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants cases. (51) Despite these developments, the SPF and other criminal law enforcement authorities remained understaffed and undertrained, and lacked sufficient financial resources to conduct investigations and enforce laws on the worst forms of child labor. (9) Resources to assist victims of human trafficking also were limited to government-operated Migrant Response Centers in Bosaso, Hargeisa, and Mogadishu. (9,34) Government authorities, including in the Somaliland region, continued to rely on the international community to provide support to survivors of trafficking and forced labor. (51) In addition, there were reports that in 2021, the Somali National Police recruited and used at least 75 children in police activities. (19,20,29,30)

A general command order barring the recruitment and use of children by the SNA remained in effect during the reporting period. Nevertheless, government security forces recruited and used children in 2021, highlighting gaps in enforcement and uneven command and control of some units. (59) The Child Protection Unit does not refer cases relating to child soldiers to the civilian justice system; however, it would theoretically prosecute violations in the military justice system. (9) In 2021, FGS security forces (police and SNA) detained at least 136 children, at times in the company of adults, for their suspected association with non-state armed groups. (19,20,29,30) Research finds that detained children have sometimes been interrogated without legal representation and coerced into signing or recording confessions. (17,22,42)

Somalia's FMS command separate police and military forces. These forces are not under the FGS chain of command. (60,61) The federal and regional governments did not provide information on their criminal law enforcement efforts for inclusion in this report. However, research indicates that Galmudug, Jubaland, and Puntland forces recruited children during the reporting period. There is evidence that a brigade of the Jubaland Security Forces, commanded by Abdirashid Janan, forcibly recruited children during the early months of 2021. (17,33,62) There is no evidence that the FGS or member states prosecuted offenders during the reporting period. (17,33) Moreover, the Juvenile Justice Law of Puntland defines a child as anyone age 14 and under; consequently, the government detained and issued prison sentences, including life imprisonment, to children over age 14 for their association with armed groups. (22,63)

The FGS has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including efforts to address all forms of child labor.

MOLSA coordinates informally with the Ministry of Women and Human Rights Development and the Ministry of Defense on child labor-related issues. Other law enforcement agencies with whom MOLSA coordinates include the SPF, the National Intelligence and Security Agency, and the Immigration and Naturalization Directorate. (2) Although these agencies loosely coordinate their activities, there is no formal coordination mechanism to address other forms of child labor, including forced labor in domestic work, agriculture, and herding livestock. During the reporting period, the effects of the pandemic continued to hinder coordination due to restrictions on in-person meetings. (51)

The FGS Ministry of Internal Security, along with other cabinet-level entities, previously chaired a High-Level Task Force on Migration, which included a working group on human trafficking; however, the task force was inactive this year. Puntland independently instituted their own laws and resource mechanisms without coordinating with the FGS. (34)

The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including the lack of scope of existing policies to address all worst forms of child labor.

‡ The government has other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (81)

Although the government has some policies that address child soldiers, research found no evidence of any policies to address child labor in agriculture, industry, street work, commercial sexual exploitation, or domestic work.

In 2021, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy of programs to address the full scope of the problem in all sectors.

* Program was launched during the reporting period. (87)
† Program is partially funded by the FGS. (23)
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (88)

The ILO supported the MOLSA in conducting a child labor assessment to determine the key drivers of child labor in Somalia. Findings will be used to support the development of a more comprehensive National Action Plan Against Child Labor. (1,68)

Although the FGS implemented programs to address child soldiers and child trafficking, research found that existing programs were insufficient to address the scope of the problem, including in street work and forced labor in agriculture.

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Somalia (Table 11).

1. U.S. Embassy- Somalia. Reporting. January 14, 2022.
2. U.S. Embassy- Mogadishu. Reporting. January 31, 2021.
3. UN Human Rights Council. Report of the Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia. Geneva: September 15, 2016: A/HRC/33/64.
   http://ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session33/Documents/A_HRC_33_64_en.docx
4. Federal Government of Somalia. ILOs Reporting on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, Convention 182. November 2019. Source on file.
5. MOLSA officials. Phone interview with USDOL official. March 7, 2020. Source on file.
6. Federal Republic of Somalia. Labour Force Survey Report: 2019. 2021.
   https://www.nbs.gov.so/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/LFS-Report_2021.pdf
7. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 3, 2022. For more information, please see “Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
   http://data.uis.unesco.org/
8. ILO. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 4 (MICS 4), 2011. Analysis received March 2022. Please see “Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
9. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. January 20, 2020.
10. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. January 25, 2019.
11. ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Direct Request concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182) Somalia (ratification: 2014) Published: 2018.
    https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3963529:NO
12. Federation of Somali Trade Unions. Somalia Human and Trade Union Rights Report: January-December 2016. 2017.
    http://www.festu.org/festu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/FESTU-HTUR-Report-2017.pdf
13. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. February 6, 2018.
14. U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report - 2021: Somalia. July 1, 2021.
    https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report/somalia/
15. Regilme, Salvador Santino Jr. Fulo & Spoldi, Elisabetta. Children in Armed Conflict: A Human Rights Crisis in Somalia. Global Jurist, Vol. 21, No. 2, 2021, pp. 365-402.
    https://doi.org/10.1515/gj-2020-0083
16. UN Security Council. Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General. June 9, 2020.
    https://www.un.org/sg/sites/www.un.org.sg/files/atoms/files/15-June-2020_Secretary-General_Report_on_CAAC_Eng.pdf
17. UN Security Council. Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General on Children and armed conflict. May 6, 2021. (A/75/873–S/2021/437).
    https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2021/437&Lang=E&Area=UNDOC
18. UN. Secretary-General Annual Report on Children and Armed Conflict. June 23, 2022.
    https://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?OpenAgent&DS=S/2022/493&Lang=E
19. UN Reporting. September 27, 2021. Source on file.
20. UN Reporting. June 30, 2021. Source on file.
21. UN Security Council. Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary General. June 20, 2019. (A/73/907-S/2019/509).
    https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2019/509&Lang=E&Area=UNDOC
22. Human Rights Watch. "It's Like We're Always in a Prison": Abuses Against Boys Accused of National Security Offenses in Somalia. February 2018.
    https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/somalia0218_web.pdf
23. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. March 13, 2020.
24. Felbab-Brown, Vanda. The problem with militias in Somalia: Almost everyone wants them despite their dangers. Brookings. April 14, 2020.
    https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-problem-with-militias-in-somalia-almost-everyone-wants-them-despite-their-dangers/
25. USAID. Joint Multi-Cluster Needs Assessment. September 2018.
    https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/reach_som_initial_findings_report_joint_multi_cluster_needs_assessment_2018.pdf
26. UN Reporting. December 2020. Source on file.
27. UN Security Council. Situation in Somalia: Report of the Secretary-General. February 13, 2020.
    https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/030/17/pdf/N2003017.pdf?OpenElement
28. UN Security Council. Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General. November 13, 2020.
    https://undocs.org/S/2020/1113
29. UN Reporting. February 8, 2022. Source on file.
30. UN Reporting. April 8, 2022. Source on file.
31. Federal Government of Somalia. General Order – 1. Enacted: July 22, 2011. Source on file.
32. UNHCR. Somalia: Estimated IDP Population in Informal Sites and Camp-Like Settings. August 2021.
    https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/88838
33. U.S. Department of State official. E-mail correspondence with USDOL official. June 23, 2021.
34. U.S. Embassy- Mogadishu. Reporting. February 9, 2021.
35. Radio Ergo. Trafficked Somali children ending up in Puntland. October 24, 2020.
    https://radioergo.org/en/author/ergo/
36. UNICEF. Somalia Education Cluster Children’s Voices Survey 2019. February 14, 2020.
    https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia-education-cluster-children-s-voices-survey-2019
37. Mwanjisi, Jamillah. COVID-19: School Closures Put Decades Of Gains For Somali Children at Risk. Save the Children. July 13, 2020.
    https://www.savethechildren.net/blog/covid-19-school-closures-put-decades-gains-somali-children-risk
38. ILO. Observation (CEACR) adopted 2020, published 109th ILC session (2021).
    https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:4049494:NO
39. UNICEF. Somalia: Humanitarian Situation Report No. 12. January 1-December 31, 2021. February 7, 2022.
    https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/UNICEF_ Somalia_ Humanitrian Situation_Report No. 12, January - December 2021.pdf
40. Government of Somalia. Law No. 65 to Promulgate the Labour Code. Enacted: October 18, 1972.
    https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_isn=16530
41. Republic of Somaliland. Private Sector Employees Law. Enacted: 2004.
    http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Xeerka_Shaqaalaha_Rayidka_2010Final.pdf
42. Federal Republic of Somalia. Provisional Constitution. Enacted: August 1, 2012.
    http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/Somalia-Constitution2012.pdf
43. Government of Somalia. Penal Code, Legislative Decree No. 5 of 16. Enacted: December 1962.
    http://www.somalilandlaw.com/Penal_Code_English.pdf
44. Federal Government of Somalia. General Education Law. Enacted: July 30, 2017. Source on file.
45. Stremlau, Nicole. Governance Without Government in the Somali Territories. Columbia SIPA: Journal of International Affairs. January 9, 2019.
    https://jia.sipa.columbia.edu/governance-without-government-somali-territories
46. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. March 23, 2018.
47. Bhalla, Nita. Somaliland elders approve 'historic' law criminalising rape. Reuters. April 9, 2018.
    https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-women-rape/somaliland-elders-approve-historic-law-criminalising-rape-idUSKBN1HG2PR
48. ILO. National employment policy for Somalia finalized. February 27, 2019.
    https://www.ilo.org/africa/media-centre/pr/WCMS_673622/lang--en/index.htm
49. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. January 14, 2016.
50. U.S. Mission- Somalia. Reporting. June 8, 2018.
51. U.S. Embassy- Mogadishu. Reporting. January 30, 2022.
52. U.S. Department of Labor reporting. Meeting Notes USDOL and Director General, MOSLA. September 28, 2020.
53. Somali Federal Republic, Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Work plan for Child Labor Department. 2020. Source on file.
54. U.S. Mission- Somalia official. E-mail communication with USDOL official. June 6, 2017.
55. Government of Somalia official. Email communication with USDOL official. April 5, 2022.
56. UN. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2021 Statistical Annex. New York, 2021. Please see “Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
    https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2021_ANNEX.pdf
57. ILO. Modelled estimates and projections (ILOEST) on population and labour force. February 7, 2022. Labor force data are modelled on a combination of demographic and economic explanatory variables by the ILO. Please see “Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
    https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/
58. UNICEF. Somalia: Humanitarian Situation Report No. 12. December 2020.
    https://www.unicef.org/media/91641/file/UNICEF Somalia Humanitarian Situation Report No 12 Jan - Dec 2020.pdf
59. UN Security Council. Working Group on Children and Armed Conflict: Conclusions on children and armed conflict in Somalia. August 11, 2020.
    http://web.archive.org/web/20220202011531/https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/S/AC.51/2020/6
60. UN Security Council. Children and Armed Conflict in Somalia: Report of the Secretary-General. March 4, 2020.
    https://www.undocs.org/en/S/2020/174
61. Horton, Michael. How Somaliland Combats al-Shabaab. Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. November 2019.
    https://ctc.usma.edu/somaliland-combats-al-shabaab/
62. Shabelle TV Report. Translation Provided by U.S. Embassy Mogadishu. February 7, 2021.
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBCsFVNXGwE
63. UN Security Council. Report of the Secretary-General on Somalia. May 9, 2017.
    http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2017/408
64. Federal Republic of Somalia Ministry of Defense Office of the Child Protection Unit. Minutes of the Executive briefing and introduction of CAAC Somalia. Virtual meeting via Ms. teams on 18 Jan 2022. January 22, 2022. Source on file.
65. Government of Somalia, Ministry of Defense Child Protection Unit. Child Protection Unit Annual Report, 2021. December 23, 2021. Source on file.
66. UN Security Council. Children and armed conflict: Report of the Secretary-General. (A/72/865-S/2018/465). May 16, 2018.
    https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/{65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9}/a_72_865_s_2018_465.pdf
67. U.S. Embassy- Somalia official. E-mail from Post to USDOL. June 15, 2022.
68. ILO. Assessment of the Child Labour Situation in Somalia. April 6, 2021. Source on file.
69. U.S. Embassy- Nairobi. Reporting. February 17, 2015.
70. UN Security Council. Report of the Secretary General on children and armed conflict in Somalia. December 22, 2016: S/2016/1098.
    http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2016/1098&Lang=E&Area=UNDOC
71. United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia. UN, Somalia recommit to end the recruitment and use of child soldiers October 30, 2019.
    https://unsom.unmissions.org/un-somalia-recommit-end-recruitment-and-use-child-soldiers
72. Federal Government of Somalia, Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. Somalia Social Protection Policy. March 2019.
    https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/MoLSA-Somalia-FINAL-min.pdf
73. Monitoring and Evaluation Monitor, and Director of Legal and Labor Relations Department, Somali MOLSA. Skype interview with USDOL officials. May 7, 2020. Source on file.
74. Al-Ahmadi, Afrah & Zampaglione, Giuseppe . From Protracted Humanitarian Relief to State-led Social Safety Net System: Somalia Baxnaano Program. World Bank Group. January 2022.
    https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/36864/From-Protracted-Humanitarian-Relief-to-State-led-Social-Safety-Net-System-Somalia-Baxnaano-Program.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
75. Baxnaano. Shock Responsive Safety Net for Human Capital Project. 2022.
    https://baxnaano.so/status/
76. Federal Government of Somalia. National Development Plan 2017–2019. December 2016.
    http://mop.gov.so/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/NDP-2017-2019-1.pdf
77. Somali Ministry of Planning, Investment, and Economic Development. Somalia National Development Plan: 2020-2024. September 26, 2019.
    http://mop.gov.so/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/NDP-9-2020-2024.pdf
78. Government of Somalia. UN Strategic Framework Somalia 2017–2020. September 2017.
    http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/Executive Board/2018/First-regular-session/DPDCPSOM3_UN Strategic Framework (2017-2020).pdf
79. UN Reporting. April 2020. Source on file.
80. The Horn Observer. Somali President Unveils Social Safety Net Program to Reduce Poverty and Improve Human Capital. April 19, 2020.
    https://hornobserver.com/articles/301/Somali-President-Unveils-Social-Safety-Net-Program-to-Reduce-Poverty-and-Improve-Human-Capital
81. Federal Government of Somalia, Ministry of Women and Human Rights Development. National Action Plan for Ending Sexual Violence in Conflict. 2013. Source on file.
82. UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. ACT TO PROTECT children affected by conflict. January 27, 2020.
    https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/act-to-protect-children-affected-by-armed-conflict/
83. Xinhua. Somalia starts building rehab center for former Al-Shabaab fighters. June 14, 2016.
    https://web.archive.org/web/20210124101229/http://english.sina.com/news/2016-06-14/doc-ifxszfak3848574.shtml
84. World Food Program. WFP Somalia Country Brief: March 2020.
    https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000114992/download/?_ga=2.108152458.946914560.1589212428-1735238816.1589212428
85. World Food Program. WFP Somalia Country Brief. January 2022.
    https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000137092/download/?_ga=2.115271438.80481896.1646939161-1409081472.1646939161
86. United Nations in Somalia. YES Joint Programme Expanding to Support Youth in Puntland and Somaliland. September 11, 2017.
    https://web.archive.org/web/20170914143418/https://www.uninsomalia.org/pros-cal-success-story-1/2017/9/11/latest-achievements-of-the-youth-employment-somalia-joint-programme
87. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor. Global Accelerator Lab 8.7 Project – Intensifying Action Against Forced Labor and Child Labor Through Innovation. 2022.
    https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/global-accelerator-lab-87-project-intensifying-action-against-forced-labor-and-child
88. USAID. Alternative Basic Education for Pastoralists (ABE). 2017.
    https://www.usaid.gov/somalia/fact-sheets/somalia-alternative-basic-education-pastoralists-abe