USDOL – US Department of Labor (Autor): „2021 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Mozambique“, Dokument #2082785

2021 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Mozambique

Moderate Advancement

In 2021, Mozambique made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The government launched an initiative to reduce the risks of human trafficking and child labor due to emergencies, such as armed conflict and natural disasters. In addition, in order to reduce the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government augmented a support program, with subsidies of $25 (1,500 meticais), as well as food distribution for vulnerable families. The government also launched an Education Strategic Plan with the aim of ensuring the continuity of safe, quality education nationwide during and after emergency situations. However, children in Mozambique are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in forced domestic work. Children also engage in dangerous tasks in the production of tobacco. In addition, the established minimum age for work is not in compliance with international labor standards because it does not extend to informal employment. Lastly, existing social programs are insufficient to fully address the extent of the child labor problem in Mozambique.

I. Prevalence and Sectoral Distribution of Child Labor

Children in Mozambique are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in forced domestic work. (1) Children also engage in dangerous tasks in the production of tobacco. (2) Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Mozambique.

**Table 1. Statistics on Children's Work and Education**
Children	Age	Percent
Working (% and population)	5 to 14	22.5 (1,526,560)
Attending School (%)	5 to 14	69.5
Combining Work and School (%)	7 to 14	22.4
Primary Completion Rate (%)		58.2

Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2020, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022. (3)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 3 (MICS 3), 2008. (4)

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

**Table 2. Overview of Children's Work by Sector and Activity**
Sector/Industry	Activity
Agriculture	Production of cashews, coconuts, cotton,† sugarcane,† tea, tobacco,† and tomatoes (2,5,6)
	Fishing,† including handling nets (2,7-9)
	Forestry,† including cutting wood, and climbing trees to collect fruit (2,9)
	Herding livestock, including cattle (2)
	Hunting, including small and wild animals (2,5)
Industry	Artisanal mining,† including gold and gemstones,† and breaking stone†(2,7,9,10)
	Construction† (2,7)
Services	Domestic work,† including childcare† (2,7,10)
	Street work, including car washing† and street vending (2,9-11)
Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡	Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (1,2,7,9,12)
	Forced labor in agriculture, domestic work, mining, and vending (13)
	Use in illicit activities, including drug trafficking, stealing, and assisting poachers in the illegal poaching industry (2)

† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

Mozambican children, lured from rural areas with promises of work and educational opportunities, are subjected to forced domestic work and commercial sexual exploitation in urban areas in Mozambique and South Africa. Research indicates that Mozambican children are also trafficked to South Africa for forced labor in agriculture, mining, and street vending. (1,7,14) Research found that children in larger cities and along transit corridors are at risk of commercial sexual exploitation. During the reporting period the government did not publish any new data on child labor or the worst forms of child labor. (9) Research indicates that a U.S. Government-designated terrorist group, ISIS-Mozambique, abducted and used children as soldiers, cooks, and laborers in northern Mozambique. (8,9,15-17)

Although primary education is free through the ninth grade, families must provide school supplies and uniforms. (7,9,18) Barriers to education for children include a lack of schools, classroom space, and trained teachers. Many students, particularly in rural areas, also face difficulties traveling long distances to get to school. (19,20) In addition, physical and sexual abuse is common in schools. Research found that some male teachers coerce female students into sex. (6,21) The government estimates that only 49 percent of children complete their primary education. During the reporting period, restrictions put in place in response to the COVID-19 pandemic continued to disrupt in-person learning and cause schools to rely on online learning, but as many as 8.5 million students lacked access to online learning. (6,9,22) Further, some LGBTQI+ students faced discrimination at secondary schools, with documented cases of discrimination in the major cities of Beira, Maputo, and Nampula. (6,9)

By the end of 2021, approximately 800,000 people, more than 40 percent of them children, were displaced due to increased terrorist-related violence in Cabo Delgado Province, up from more than 500,000 people the previous year; this increased rate of displacement increased barriers to education for some children due to a lack of schools in displaced communities. (6,7,9,23-25) Research indicates that, as a result of terrorist attacks, at least 626 schools have been destroyed in the province since the beginning of the conflict. (8)

In addition, research found that during 2021 hundreds of children, including girls, were kidnapped by the terrorist group ISIS-Mozambique in Cabo Delgado Province. Hundreds of boys have been kidnapped, trained, and forcibly recruited and used in armed combat against Mozambican government forces. (16,17,25)

II. Legal Framework for Child Labor

Mozambique has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

**Table 3. Ratification of International Conventions on Child Labor**
Convention	Ratification
ILO C. 138, Minimum Age	✓
ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor	✓
UN CRC	✓
UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict	✓
UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography	✓
Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons	✓

The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Mozambique’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including the minimum age for work.

**Table 4. Laws and Regulations on Child Labor**
Standard	Meets International Standards	Age	Legislation
Minimum Age for Work	No	15	Article 26 of the Labor Law; Article 4 of the Regulations on Domestic Work (26,27)
Minimum Age for Hazardous Work	Yes	18	Article 23 of the Labor Law (27)
Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children	Yes	18	Hazardous Work List (28)
Prohibition of Forced Labor	Yes		Articles 10, 11, and 17 of the Trafficking in Persons Law; Articles 196 and 198 of the Penal Code (29,30)
Prohibition of Child Trafficking	Yes		Articles 5, 10, and 11 of the Trafficking in Persons Law (29)
Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children	Yes		Articles 5, 10, and 11 of the Trafficking in Persons Law; Articles 226 and 227 of the Penal Code (29,30)
Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities	Yes		Articles 33 and 40 of the Law on Drugs (31)
Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment	Yes	18	Articles 2 and 23 of the Law on Military Service (32)
Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military	Yes		Article 2 of the Law on Military Service (32)
Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups	Yes		Articles 5 and 10 of the Trafficking in Persons Law (29)
Compulsory Education Age	Yes	15‡	Article 41 of the Law of Basic Child Protection; Article 7 of the Law on the National System of Education (33,34)
Free Public Education	Yes		Article 41 of the Law of Basic Child Protection; Article 7 of the Law on the National System of Education (33,34)

‡ Age calculated based on available information (33,34)

The government continued to work with an international organization to review draft amendments to bring the 2008 anti-trafficking law in line with international standards. However, draft amendments were awaiting approval by various stakeholders for the third consecutive reporting period. (24) The updated legislation is expected to be considered by the Parliament in 2022. (6,14,24)

The Regulations on Domestic Work allow children ages 12 to 15 to perform domestic work with the permission of their legal guardian. (26) The Labor Law also states that children ages 12 to 15 may work under certain conditions defined by the Council of Ministers. (27) The minimum age of 12 for light work is not in compliance with international standards. (35,36) In 2021, the Government of Mozambique drafted legislation to revise the labor law, which would raise the minimum working age to 18. It is expected to be submitted to Parliament for approval in 2022. (9)

The Labor Law's minimum age protections do not apply to children working outside of formal employment relationships. The Ministry of Labor, Employment, and Social Security (MITESS), in collaboration with civil society, has reportedly developed new regulations to protect children working in the informal sector; however, the government has not reported on the implementation of these regulations. (27,34,36,37)

III. Enforcement of Laws on Child Labor

The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.

**Table 5. Agencies Responsible for Child Labor Law Enforcement**
Organization/Agency	Role
Ministry of Labor, Employment, and Social Security (MITESS)	Enforces child labor laws and regulations. The labor inspectorate works with the National Police Force to enforce criminal law. (9) Monitors implementation of the National Action Plan to Combat the Worst Forms of Child Labor. (9,18,38)
Ministry of Industry and Trade’s General Inspectorate of Economic Activities	Enforces child labor laws and regulations related to business activities. (9,18)
National Police Force	Enforces all criminal laws, including those related to the worst forms of child labor. Through its seven-person National Criminal Investigation Service, located within the Ministry of the Interior, investigates and refers cases of human trafficking and violence against women and children to the Attorney General’s Office. (9,18)
Attorney General’s Office	Coordinates the government’s efforts against human trafficking and child labor. (9,18)

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2021, labor law enforcement agencies in Mozambique took actions to address child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of MITESS that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including a lack of financial resources.

**Table 6. Labor Law Enforcement Efforts Related to Child Labor**
Overview of Labor Law Enforcement	2020	2021
Labor Inspectorate Funding	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Number of Labor Inspectors	117 (7)	129 (9)
Mechanism to Assess Civil Penalties	Yes (27)	Yes (27)
Initial Training for New Labor Inspectors	Yes (7)	Yes (9)
Training on New Laws Related to Child Labor	Yes (7)	N/A (9)
Refresher Courses Provided	Yes (7)	Yes (9)
Number of Labor Inspections Conducted	6,126 (7)	8,650 (9)
Number Conducted at Worksite	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Number of Child Labor Violations Found	Unknown (7)	0 (9)
Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed	Unknown (7)	N/A (9)
Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected	Unknown (7)	N/A (9)
Routine Inspections Conducted	Yes (7)	Yes (9)
Routine Inspections Targeted	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Unannounced Inspections Permitted	Yes (27)	Yes (27)
Unannounced Inspections Conducted	Yes (7)	Unknown (9)
Complaint Mechanism Exists	Yes (7)	Yes (9)
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services	Yes (7)	Yes (9)

Mozambique hired an additional 12 labor inspectors in 2021, but research indicates that the number of labor inspectors is likely insufficient for the size of Mozambique’s workforce, which includes approximately 14 million workers. (9,18) According to the ILO’s technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 40,000 workers in less developed countries, Mozambique would need to employ about 354 labor inspectors. (39,40) Limited financial resources and limited resources such as fuel and vehicles may also hamper the labor inspectorate’s ability to enforce child labor laws. (7,9,18)

MITESS officials can refer victims of child labor to either the police or social workers from the Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Action (MGCAS) for family assessments and potential placement of these children in foster homes. (7,9) During the reporting period, MITESS worked with police and immigration officials to conduct awareness-raising activities in markets, schools, and locations where there may be child labor. These activities included disseminating information about work considered dangerous for children and the risk of trafficking of children for labor purposes. (6,9)

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2021, criminal law enforcement agencies in Mozambique took actions to address child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the criminal enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including the absence of published criminal enforcement data related to child labor.

**Table 7. Criminal Law Enforcement Efforts Related to Child Labor**
Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement	2020	2021
Initial Training for New Criminal Investigators	Yes (7)	Yes (9)
Training on New Laws Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor	Yes (7)	N/A (24)
Refresher Courses Provided	Yes (7)	Yes (9)
Number of Investigations	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Number of Violations Found	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Number of Prosecutions Initiated	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Number of Convictions	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor	Unknown (7)	Unknown (9)
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services	Yes (18)	Yes (9)

The government did not publish data on criminal law enforcement efforts in 2021. (9)

Criminal law enforcement officials work with MGCAS and the National Reference Group for the Protection of Children and Combating Trafficking in Persons to coordinate referrals of children to social services providers. (18) MGCAS has a standard operating procedure for handling victims of domestic abuse, including human trafficking victims. This procedure incorporates an intake form used nationwide by law enforcement officials, including border officials, to collect the necessary data from victims and ensure that they receive professional care and referrals to appropriate services. (35)

During the reporting period, child soldiers who had been forcibly recruited and used by ISIS-Mozambique were rescued by government forces. (41)

IV. Coordination of Government Efforts on Child Labor

The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including the lack of a coordination mechanism dedicated to addressing child labor beyond the scope of human trafficking.

**Table 8. Key Mechanisms to Coordinate Government Efforts on Child Labor**
Coordinating Body	Role & Description
National Reference Group for the Protection of Children and Combating Trafficking in Persons	Supports efforts to prevent human trafficking, and is the main coordinating body for addressing trafficking in persons nationally. Led by the Attorney General, in partnership with local leaders and NGO stakeholders, holds regular meetings to discuss child labor issues. (9,14) In collaboration with provincial-level reference groups, uses a national referral mechanism to connect child labor and human trafficking victims to services, and facilitates training of officials and sensitization campaigns. (6) Every province has a reference group which coordinates regional efforts to address human trafficking. (1) By the end of 2021, the government also set up cross-border reference groups with each of its neighbors. (9) During the reporting period, national and provincial reference groups met regularly and held trainings for front-line officials on child labor, human trafficking, and irregular migration. National and provincial reference groups collaborated with reference groups from Mozambique's six neighboring countries. (9,25) The cross-border reference groups helped ensure that children returning to Mozambique received safe repatriation, social assistance, family tracing and reunification, and access to an assistance center when needed. The groups also conducted awareness campaigns on the protection of children on the move. (6) They also launched an initiative with the Ministry of State Administration’s National Institute of Disaster Management (Instituto Nacional de Gestão e Redução de Riscos do Desastre) focused on reducing the risk of human trafficking and child labor due to emergencies, such as armed conflict and natural disasters. (9,25)
Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Action (MGCAS)	Part of the government's efforts to implement the National Action Plan for the Fight Against the Worst Forms of Child Labor. (7) Operates three shelters that provide support and reintegration services for human trafficking victims, including to victims of child trafficking. (37) During the reporting period, MGCAS removed 44 children from situations of child labor and reintegrated them with their families. (6,9)
National Commission on Children’s Rights	Led by MGCAS, oversees and reports on children’s rights in Mozambique to the African Charter and other international bodies, and performs consultations and deliberations on national action plans and legislation. (7,9,20) Research was unable to determine whether the National Commission on Children's Rights was active during the reporting period.
Ministry of the Interior’s Women and Children's Victim Assistance Units	Provide services to children who have been victims of crimes, including human trafficking. Implement a government-funded program that includes 22 victim assistance units, which provide temporary shelter, food, limited counseling, and monitoring following reintegration, and operate countrywide through facilities in more than 215 police stations. (1) Research was unable to determine whether the Women and Children's Victim Assistance Units were active during the reporting period.

The Council of Ministers is charged with monitoring the government’s coordination efforts in addressing child labor, and each ministry has a designated point of contact for child issues. (8) Research did not find a coordination mechanism dedicated to addressing child labor beyond the scope of human trafficking.

During the reporting period, Mozambique held sensitization campaigns nationwide, raising awareness about child labor issues on community radio. It also held several events marking the International Year for the Elimination of Child Labor. (9)

V. Government Policies on Child Labor

The government has established policies that are consistent with relevant international standards on child labor (Table 9).

**Table 9. Key Policies Related to Child Labor**
Policy	Description
National Action Plan to Combat the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2017–2022)	Aims to map 70 percent of occurrences of the worst forms of child labor by province and activity, and to withdraw 20,000 children from the worst forms of child labor and enroll them in the Basic Social Subsidy program. (38) Mandates the coordination of several key government agencies, including the Attorney General’s Office and the Office for Assistance to Families and Children Victims of Violence in MGCAS, among others. Also created a multi-sector group comprising representatives from the government, civil society, unions, and employers in the formal and informal sectors to collaborate on issues identified in the plan. (7) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Combat the Worst Forms of Child Labor during the reporting period.
2020–2024 Five Year Plan	Includes goals to implement the policies related to child labor. Under Priority One and Strategic Objective Four, stresses preventing and addressing violence against children, including sexual abuse, forced marriages, kidnappings, human trafficking, and exploitation of child labor. (9,42) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the 2020–2024 Five Year Plan during the reporting period.
Strategic Plan for the Preparation, Response and Recuperation of the Education Sector in Cases of Emergency†	Newly launched 10-year strategic plan that aims to provide safe, quality education nationwide during and after emergency situations, focusing on the need for strong interventions to protect children, as well as the harmful effects of child labor. (9,43)

† Policy was approved during the reporting period.
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor. (42)

Although a National Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons was drafted in 2019, it has not yet been fully implemented. (9,14,25) The current National Action Plan to Combat the Worst Forms of Child Labor addresses geographic regions of concern (Tete, Manica, Maputo Province, and Maputo City), underlying reasons for child labor, and principal sectors in which child labor occurs (mining, domestic work, and agriculture). (7)

VI. Social Programs to Address Child Labor

In 2021, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the inadequacy to address the problem in all sectors.

**Table 10. Key Social Programs to Address Child Labor**
Program	Description
Basic Social Subsidy Program†	Government- and donor-funded program that provides financial subsidies to orphaned children living in poor and vulnerable households and child heads of households. Aims to improve secondary school attendance and reach 3.3 million direct program participants by 2024. (44,45) During the reporting period, to reduce the economic impact of the pandemic, the government augmented a support program with subsidies of $25 (1,500 meticais), as well as food distribution for vulnerable families. (9)
Programs for Street Children†	Comprise 176 shelters that provide education, occupational training activities, and health and psychosocial care for street children. Operated by government and civil society organizations.(46) During the reporting period, 5 shelters for children were closed, with 1,043 children provided with home care due to the closures. The government continued to operate the other 171 shelters. (9)
Child Talk Line (Linha Fala Criança)	NGO-funded program working with the government to run a hotline that receives complaints of child abuse, including those related to child labor and sexual exploitation. (7,25) During the reporting year, the government continued to provide logistical and technical support, and the line remained active. (9,25) In 2021, the hotline also opened a call center in Cabo Delgado staffed with a team that speaks local languages. (6) During the reporting period, the hotline received 18 reports of alleged child trafficking or kidnapping and 111 reports of child labor, and recorded 363 referrals to the national police and the Office for the Assistance of Family and Minor Victims of Violence, resulting in 171 instances of assistance. (25)
Memorandum of Understanding to Combat Child Labor in Tobacco Growing (2018–2021)	$1.2 million, 3-year project funded by the Eliminating Child Labor in Tobacco Growing Foundation, focusing on education, awareness-raising, institutional capacity building, and revision of the government's legal framework. Incorporated training for law enforcement officials. (47-49) Although the program was active in 2021, research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the Memorandum of Understanding to Combat Child Labor in Tobacco Growing program during the reporting period. (6)
Internet Watch Foundation Website	Internet portal, established by the government in collaboration with Internet Watch Foundation, which receives anonymous reports on suspected cases of online commercial sexual exploitation of children, including in the production of pornography. (50-52) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the Internet Watch Foundation Website program during the reporting period.

† Program is funded by the Government of Mozambique.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (53)

Although a draft report on the analysis of national child labor data from the Integrated Household Survey was completed in 2017, no child labor data were published. The MITESS planned to carry out a child labor and forced labor study in 2021, but it did not have the necessary funding. (6,20) In addition, research found no evidence that the government has carried out programs to assist children engaged in domestic work, and the scope of existing programs is insufficient to fully address the extent of the child labor problem.

VII. Suggested Government Actions to Eliminate Child Labor

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Mozambique (Table 11).

**Table 11. Suggested Government Actions to Eliminate Child Labor**
Area	Suggested Action	Year(s) Suggested
Legal Framework	Ensure that all children are protected under the law, including children working outside of formal employment relationships.	2015 – 2021
	Ensure that the minimum age for light work is in compliance with international labor standards.	2018 – 2021
Enforcement	Publish all data on labor law enforcement efforts, including the labor inspectorate’s funding, whether target and unannounced inspections were carried out.	2009 – 2021
	Increase the number of labor inspectors to meet the ILO’s technical advice.	2009 – 2021
	Provide labor inspectors with adequate financial resources, including vehicles and fuel, to ensure their capacity to enforce child labor laws.	2009 – 2021
	Publish data on criminal law enforcement efforts, such as the number of investigations, violations found, prosecutions initiated, and convictions secured, and whether penalties for violations related to the worst forms of child labor were imposed.	2009 – 2021
Coordination	Establish coordinating mechanisms to prevent and eliminate all worst forms of child labor.	2010 – 2021
	Ensure that the National Commission on Children's Rights and the Women and Children's Victim Assistance Units publish activities during the reporting period.	2020 – 2021
Government Policies	Publish activities undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Combat the Worst Forms of Child Labor and the 2020–2024 Five Year Plan during the reporting period.	2020 – 2021
	Finalize and fully implement the National Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons.	2021
Social Programs	Ensure that the government publishes yearly data on child labor and the worst forms of child labor.	2020 – 2021
	Take measures to ensure that all children have access to education by providing supplies, uniforms, and an adequate number of schools, classroom space, and trained teachers; address barriers for children from rural areas; take preventative steps to protect children from physical and sexual abuse in schools.	2010 – 2021
	Ensure that children in displaced communities have access to schools.	2021
	Publish activities undertaken to implement the Memorandum of Understand to Combat Child Labor in Tobacco Growing and the Internet Watch Foundation Website during the reporting period.	2018 – 2021
	Publish the results of the Integrated Household Survey and use the findings to inform policies and programs.	2015 – 2021
	Institute programs to address child labor in domestic work, and expand existing programs to address the full scope of the child labor problem.	2010 – 2021

References

ecoi.net-Beschreibung:: Jahresbericht zu Kinderarbeit (Beobachtungszeitraum 2021)
Land:: Mosambik
Quelle:: USDOL – US Department of Labor (Autor)
Originallink:: https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/mozambique#
Dokumentart:: Periodischer Bericht
Sprache:: Englisch
Veröffentlicht:: 28. September 2022
Dokument-ID:: 2082785