In 2020, Zimbabwe made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The government enacted the Education Amendment Act, which raised the legal compulsory education age to 16. It also significantly expanded the Basic Education Assistance Module to provide assistance with school expenses to over 950,000 orphans and vulnerable children, while providing humanitarian assistance allowances for vulnerable families affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. However, children are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, mining, and tobacco production, each sometimes as a result of human trafficking. Children also engage in child labor in agriculture, including in the harvesting of sugarcane. The government did not publicly release information on its criminal law enforcement efforts, and law enforcement agencies lack resources to enforce child labor laws. In addition, gaps remain in the country’s legal framework against child labor, including the prohibition of commercial sexual exploitation of children.
Children in Zimbabwe are subjected to the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, mining, and tobacco production, each sometimes as a result of human trafficking. Children also engage in child labor in agriculture, including in the harvesting of sugarcane. (1,2) In 2020, the government published results from the Labor Force and Child Labor Survey conducted in 2019. The survey estimated that 71 percent of child labor occurred in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors. (3) However, raw data from the government's Labor Force and Child Labor Survey have not been made publicly available for analysis. Table 1 provides key indicators on children’s work and education in Zimbabwe. Data on some of these indicators are not available from the sources used in this report.
|
Children |
Age |
Percent |
|---|---|---|
|
Working (% and population) |
5 to 14 |
40.4 (Unavailable) |
|
Attending School (%) |
5 to 14 |
90.7 |
|
Combining Work and School (%) |
7 to 14 |
42.0 |
|
Primary Completion Rate (%) |
98.5 |
Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2013, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2021. (4)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from UNICEF, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 6 (MICS 6), 2018. (5)
Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.
|
Sector/Industry |
Activity |
|---|---|
|
Agriculture |
Farming, including the production of tea, cotton, tobacco, corn, and sugarcane (2,6-12) |
|
Fishing, including casting nets, hauling fish loads, and sorting fish (2,9,12-14) |
|
|
Work in forestry, such as dragging logs from felling sites and loading logs for transport (12,14,15) |
|
|
Cattle herding (2,10) |
|
|
Industry |
Mining and panning of gold and chrome, using dangerous chemicals such as cyanide and mercury, and extracting material from underground passages and quarries† (11,12,16-19) |
|
Services |
Street work, including vending and begging (2,9,20-23) |
|
Domestic work (2,9,12) |
|
|
Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ |
Use in illicit activities, including selling drugs (24) |
|
Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking (1,2,25-28) |
|
|
Forced labor in agriculture, including herding cattle, mining, and domestic work, each sometimes as a result of human trafficking (24,29) |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Deteriorating economic conditions, cholera outbreaks, drought, and food shortages likely make children more vulnerable to child labor. (11,30-33) Zimbabwean children living in border towns are trafficked to South Africa, Mozambique, and Zambia, where they become victims of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor in domestic work. (34) Some families recruit rural children, especially orphans, to work in cities, often with promises of education or adoption. Such children are subject to domestic service or forced to work in mining, drug smuggling, or other illegal activities. (34,35) Girls under the age of 18 are subjected to commercial sexual exploitation, particularly along major transit corridors and in mining areas. (1,2,17,24,28,36)
Children ages 12 to 17 work on tobacco farms, performing activities such as planting, weeding, harvesting, packing, and grading tobacco, tasks that often expose them to toxic chemicals and the effects of nicotine from handling tobacco leaves. (8,19,37) Children also work on sugar plantations in the southeastern part of the country, where they wield dangerous tools and endure high temperatures. (10,38) Moreover, there has been an increase in children working at artisanal and small-scale gold-mining sites, where they face risks including collapsed mines and exposure to mercury, and in commercial sexual exploitation around mining areas. Worsening economic conditions, as well as school closures and lockdown restrictions related to the pandemic, likely exacerbated these trends in 2020. (16-18,39,40) In some cases, armed criminal groups have taken children into underground mines and forced them to mine gold under threat of physical harm. (29) During the pandemic, multiple civil society stakeholders have also observed greater numbers of children engaged in vending, brickmaking, work on tobacco and sugarcane farms, and in the worst forms of child labor, including the use of children in the sale of drugs and commercial sexual exploitation. (17,23,41,42)
The Education Amendment Act stipulates children's right to education irrespective of race, nationality, or place of birth. (43,44) However, undocumented children who come to Zimbabwe from neighboring countries, and children who otherwise lack birth certificates, face barriers to education because, beginning in grade seven, children must present identity documents to sit for national exams. (2,45) Many children, especially those in rural areas, are not registered at birth because many Zimbabweans are unaware of birth registration requirements. In addition, impoverished parents sometimes leave their children under the care of other relatives, an arrangement that often complicates the process of obtaining a birth certificate because Zimbabwe requires the presence of at least one parent for birth registration. (46) As a result of these barriers, children may drop out of school, increasing their vulnerability to child labor. (2,9,47,48) In addition, poor school infrastructure, including lack of water and hygiene facilities, an insufficient number of teachers, and long travel distances to reach schools may contribute to higher dropout rates and vulnerability to child labor, particularly in rural areas. (2)
Zimbabwe has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).
|
Convention |
Ratification |
|---|---|
|
ILO C. 138, Minimum Age |
✓ |
|
ILO C. 182, Worst Forms of Child Labor |
✓ |
|
UN CRC |
✓ |
|
UN CRC Optional Protocol on Armed Conflict |
✓ |
|
UN CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography |
✓ |
|
Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons |
✓ |
The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Zimbabwe’s legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including the prohibition of commercial sexual exploitation of children.
|
Standard |
Meets International Standards |
Age |
Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Minimum Age for Work |
Yes |
16 |
Section 11.1 of the Labor Act and Section 10A(1) of the Children's Act (49,50) |
|
Minimum Age for Hazardous Work |
Yes |
18 |
Section 11.4 of the Labor Act and Section 10A(4) of the Children's Act (49,50) |
|
Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children |
Yes |
Section 3.1 of Labour Relations (Employment of Children and Young Persons) Regulations and Section 2 and 10A(4) of the Children's Act (49,51) |
|
|
Prohibition of Forced Labor |
Yes |
Sections 54 and 55 of the Constitution, Section 4A of the Labor Act (50,52) |
|
|
Prohibition of Child Trafficking |
Yes |
Section 3 of the Trafficking in Persons Act (53) |
|
|
Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children |
No |
Section 61, 83, 86, and 87 of the Criminal Law Act; Section 8(2)a of the Children’s Act; Section 3 of the Trafficking in Persons Act (49,53,54) |
|
|
Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities |
Yes |
Section 156 of the Criminal Law Act and Section 10 of the Children’s Act (49,54) |
|
|
Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment |
Yes |
16 |
Sections 5, 9, and 10 of the National Service Act (55) |
|
Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military |
Yes |
Section 9 of the National Service Act (55) |
|
|
Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups |
No |
||
|
Compulsory Education Age |
Yes |
16‡ |
Sections 2 and 5 of the Education Act (43,44) |
|
Free Public Education |
No |
Section 5, 6, and 13 of the Education Act (43,44) |
‡ Age calculated based on available information (56)
In 2020, the government enacted the Education Amendment Act, establishing compulsory education up to Form 4 (age 16). (44,57) The new law also mandates the provision of sanitary and menstrual health supplies and facilities for girls, and strengthens provisions protecting children from discrimination in education to include children with disabilities, girls who are pregnant, and other vulnerable groups. (44,58,59) Although the updated Education Act establishes the right of children to state-funded education up to age 16, the law maintains the ability of the Minister of Education to institute instructional fees. (43,44)
Laws do not sufficiently prohibit commercial sexual exploitation, as they do not criminally prohibit the use of children in the production of pornography or for pornographic performances. (54,60,61)
The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the authority and operations of enforcement agencies that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.
|
Organization/Agency |
Role |
|---|---|
|
Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare (MPSLSW) |
Enforces labor and anti-human trafficking laws and investigates labor-related complaints, including those involving child labor. (11) Also conducts industry- and sectoral-based labor inspections through appointed agents of national employment councils, comprising representation from both employers' associations and trade unions. (62,63) Provides child protection services, including investigating, intervening in, and reporting on child abuse cases through its Department for Child Welfare. (35) |
|
Zimbabwe Republic Police |
Enforce laws related to the worst forms of child labor in conjunction with the MPSLSW and the Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs. (11) |
|
Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs |
Oversees all courts, including labor courts. Addresses human trafficking and child victim cases through victim-centered courts. (11) |
Labor Law Enforcement
In 2020, labor law enforcement agencies in Zimbabwe took actions to combat child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the authority of the Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare (MPSLSW) that may hinder adequate labor law enforcement, including authority to assess penalties.
|
Overview of Labor Law Enforcement |
2019 |
2020 |
|---|---|---|
|
Labor Inspectorate Funding |
Unknown (11) |
$25,000 (2) |
|
Number of Labor Inspectors |
Unknown (11) |
120 (2) |
|
Inspectorate Authorized to Assess Penalties |
No (11,64) |
No (2,64) |
|
Initial Training for New Labor Inspectors |
Unknown (11) |
Yes (2) |
|
Training on New Laws Related to Child Labor |
N/A (11) |
N/A (2) |
|
Refresher Courses Provided |
Unknown (11) |
Yes |
|
Number of Labor Inspections Conducted |
Unknown (11) |
1,860 (2) |
|
Number Conducted at Worksite |
Unknown (11) |
1,860 (2) |
|
Number of Child Labor Violations Found |
Unknown (11) |
0 (2) |
|
Number of Child Labor Violations for Which Penalties Were Imposed |
Unknown (11) |
N/A (2) |
|
Number of Child Labor Penalties Imposed that Were Collected |
Unknown (11) |
N/A (2) |
|
Routine Inspections Conducted |
Unknown (11) |
Yes (2) |
|
Routine Inspections Targeted |
Unknown (11) |
Yes (2) |
|
Unannounced Inspections Permitted |
Yes (50) |
Yes (50) |
|
Unannounced Inspections Conducted |
Unknown (11) |
Yes (2) |
|
Complaint Mechanism Exists |
Yes (11) |
Yes (2) |
|
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Labor Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (11) |
Yes (2) |
The labor inspectorate staffs 120 inspectors is likely insufficient for the size of Zimbabwe’s workforce, which includes approximately 7.9 million workers. According to the ILO’s technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 15,000 workers in developing economies, Zimbabwe would employ about 527 labor inspectors. (11,65) The limited number of inspectors and a lack of resources, such as available vehicles, likely hinder the inspectorate's ability to conduct child labor investigations and adequately monitor rural farms at which child labor occurs. (2,62) Furthermore, labor inspectors also oversee arbitration and conciliation, a responsibility that compromises their ability to conduct onsite investigations to combat child labor. (62)
During the reporting period, the government held three training workshops for both new and current inspectors, which included content on laws and enforcement of laws related to child labor. (2)
Criminal Law Enforcement
In 2020, criminal law enforcement agencies in Zimbabwe took actions to combat child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the operations of the MPSLSW that may hinder adequate criminal and labor law enforcement, including the publication of enforcement data.
|
Overview of Criminal Law Enforcement |
2019 |
2020 |
|---|---|---|
|
Initial Training for New Criminal Investigators |
Unknown (11) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Training on New Laws Related to the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
N/A (11) |
N/A (2) |
|
Refresher Courses Provided |
Yes (11) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Number of Investigations |
1 (24) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Number of Violations Found |
1 (24) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Number of Prosecutions Initiated |
4 (24) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Number of Convictions |
Unknown (11) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Imposed Penalties for Violations Related to The Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Unknown (11) |
Unknown (2) |
|
Reciprocal Referral Mechanism Exists Between Criminal Authorities and Social Services |
Yes (11) |
Yes (2) |
The government did not provide information on its criminal law enforcement efforts related to the worst forms of child labor. (2)
The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including information on the activities of key coordinating bodies.
|
Coordinating Body |
Role & Description |
|---|---|
|
National Steering Committee to Address the Worst Forms of Child Labor |
Addresses the worst forms of child labor. Chaired by the MPSLSW and includes the Ministries of Health and Child Care; Primary and Secondary Education; and Youth Development, Indigenization and Economic Empowerment. (2) Also includes international organizations and civil society groups, such as workers’ and employers’ organizations. (2) |
|
Ministry-Level Committee on Children’s Issues |
Coordinates government ministries’ efforts related to children’s issues, including child labor. Includes the MPSLSW and the Ministries of Education; Women’s Affairs; and Youth Development, Indigenization and Economic Empowerment. (11) Includes Child Protection Committees, which operate at the village, ward, district, provincial, and national levels, to discuss issues affecting children, including child labor. (66) |
|
Anti-Trafficking Inter-Ministerial Committee |
Coordinates actions to combat human trafficking, including the implementation of the Trafficking in Persons National Plan of Action (NAPLAC). (24,67) |
|
National Task Force on Street Children |
Outlines strategies to combat child labor, including feeding street children at drop-in centers, reuniting children with their families, and offering counseling sessions. Chaired by the MPSLSW and includes NGOs that work on street children’s issues. (68) Also includes the Ministry of Home Affairs, represented by the Zimbabwe Republic Police. (66) |
|
Child Protection Committees |
Operates at the village, ward, district, and provincial levels to discuss issues affecting children, including child labor. (11) Representatives include ministries, civil society, local volunteers, and teachers. Reports to the ministry-level Committee on Children’s Issues. (66) |
Research was unable to determine whether coordinating bodies were active during the reporting period. (2) In addition, a lack of funding hinders coordinating bodies from carrying out their mandates. (2,69)
The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including implementation of key policies.
|
Policy |
Description |
|---|---|
|
National Action Plan to Combat Child Labor |
Promotes understanding of child labor issues and creates an entity to coordinate responses to the findings. Consists of three focus areas: education assistance, poverty assistance through a cash transfer scheme, and health assistance. (2) Research was unable to determine whether activities were undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Combat Child Labor during the reporting period. |
|
Trafficking in Persons National Plan of Action (NAPLAC) (2019–2021) |
Aims to implement the Palermo Protocol through the development of strategies to combat human trafficking, with an emphasis on prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnership. (24,70) The government began operationalization of NAPLAC during the reporting period. (29) |
|
Zimbabwe UN Development Assistance Framework (2016–2020) |
Integrated child labor prevention strategies in the Education for All campaign headed by the UN. Promoted gender equality and reduction of AIDS/HIV prevalence, and allocated social resources to address child labor. (71) |
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor. (32)
In 2020, the government funded and participated in programs that may contribute to eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the adequacy of programs to address the full scope of the problem.
|
Program |
Description |
|---|---|
|
Harmonized Social Cash Transfer (HSCT)† |
Government-funded unconditional cash transfer program, with support from UNICEF, to assist labor-constrained and food-insecure households to avert risk-coping strategies, such as child labor. (2,72) In 2020, the government budgeted $23 million to the HSCT program, an increase from previous years. (73) |
|
Basic Education Assistance Module† |
Government program, with support by the UK Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), that provides basic financial assistance to families for education costs, such as tuition and examination fees. Aims to keep children in school and to enroll children who lack access to school because of economic hardship. (11) Covered tuition, examination fees, and levies for 950,000 orphans and other vulnerable children in 2020. Plans to expand coverage to 1.2–1.5 million children in 2021, including a budgetary increase of over $1.2 million, and to broaden the scope of the program to include uniforms and books. (12,74,75) |
|
Mobile Birth Registration Program† |
Government mobile birth registration program, implemented by the Registrar General’s office and some local governments, to ensure that citizens receive identity documents, including birth certificates. (46,76) Fields mobile teams in every district in the country. (35) Active in 2020. (46) |
|
Child Protection Fund for the National Action Plan for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (2016–2022) |
UNICEF Child Protection Fund program, supported by FCDO, that focuses on equity and access to quality education for children and provides child protection services. Provided cash assistance for families to keep children in school. (32,77,78) As of May 2020, UNICEF had provided psychosocial support activities, reaching 87,836 children, including children with disabilities and support for parents and caregivers. In coordination with the MPSLSW, UNICEF also provided family tracing and reunification to 167 street children. (79,80) |
|
Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe (DREAMS) |
$106 million, U.S. President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)/USAID-funded country program that aims to reduce rates of HIV among adolescent girls and young women, including girls vulnerable to commercial sexual exploitation. Targeted more than 163,000 participants in 2020. (81,82) |
† Program is funded by the Government of Zimbabwe.
During the pandemic in 2020, the government provided monthly humanitarian allowances, ranging from $1 to $2, to vulnerable households affected by the pandemic, including 500,000 informal sector workers and 700 street children. (74,75)
Although Zimbabwe has programs that target child labor, the scope of these programs is insufficient to fully address the extent of the problem, especially child labor in agriculture, mining, and commercial sexual exploitation. Research found that there are problems with the distribution of social support benefits because structures within the ruling party control the allocation of food, allowances, seeds, and other forms of assistance, which may result in the exclusion of vulnerable families from assistance programs. (2)
Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Zimbabwe (Table 11).
|
Area |
Suggested Action |
Year(s) Suggested |
|---|---|---|
|
Legal Framework |
Ensure that the law criminally prohibits the recruitment of children under age 18 by non-state armed groups. |
2016 – 2020 |
|
Establish by law free basic education. |
2009 – 2020 |
|
|
Ensure that the law criminally prohibits the use, procuring, and offering of a child for the production of pornography and pornographic performances. |
2019 – 2020 |
|
|
Enforcement |
Authorize the labor inspectorate to assess penalties for labor law violations. |
2017 – 2020 |
|
Significantly increase the number of labor inspectors to meet the ILO’s technical advice. |
2016 – 2020 |
|
|
Ensure that the labor inspectorate has sufficient financial and human resources to address labor violations and enforce minimum age protections in all sectors, including agriculture. |
2017 – 2020 |
|
|
Publish information on the government's criminal law enforcement efforts. |
2015 – 2020 |
|
|
Coordination |
Ensure that all coordinating bodies are able to carry out their intended mandates. |
2016 – 2020 |
|
Government Policies |
Publish activities undertaken to implement the National Action Plan to Combat Child Labor. |
2010 – 2020 |
|
Social Programs |
Improve access to secondary school by ensuring that all children are registered at birth and by removing identity documentation requirements to take national exams. |
2014 – 2020 |
|
Enhance efforts to make education accessible to all children, including children living in rural areas, by improving access to water and hygiene facilities within schools, reducing travel distances to schools, and increasing the number of teachers. |
2016 – 2020 |
|
|
Expand existing social programs to address child labor, especially child labor in agriculture, commercial sexual exploitation, and mining. |
2010 – 2020 |
|
|
Improve systems for the distribution of social support benefits to ensure that allocations reach vulnerable households that are most in need of the benefits. |
2020 |
- Murungweni, Maxim. Organisation steps up fight against sexual exploitation of children. The Herald, September 30, 2017.
http://www.herald.co.zw/organisation-steps-up-fight-against-sexual-exploitation-of-children/ - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. January 13, 2021.
- ZIMSTAT. 2019 Labour Force and Child Labour Survey. 2020.
http://www.zimstat.co.zw/wp-content/uploads/publications/Economic/Employment/Labour-Force-Report-2019.pdf - UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 3, 2021. For more information, please see “Children’s Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report. http://data.uis.unesco.org/
- ILO. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 6 (MICS 6), 2018. Analysis received March 2021. For more information, please see “Children’s Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions” in the Reference Materials section of this report.
- NewsDay. The sad story of Arda Transau villagers. January 16, 2017.
https://www.newsday.co.zw/2017/01/sad-story-arda-transau-villagers/ - Bara, Energy. Zimbabwe fails to deal with child labour scourge. African Independent, August 11, 2017. Source on file.
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- U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. January 15, 2020.
- ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Observation concerning Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) Zimbabwe (ratification: 2000). Published 2021.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:4051483 - Sunday Mail. Child Labour Rampant in Fishing Industry. June 3, 2018.
https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/child-labour-rampant-in-fishing-industry - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. February 26, 2019.
- U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. January 18, 2017.
- Mugabi, Samuel. Child labour on the rise in mines, say officials. New Vision, December 15, 2020. Source on file.
- Zimbabwe Environmental Law Association. Impact of Covid-19 Response Mechanisms on Children in Selected Gold and Diamond Mining Communities in Zimbabwe. October 12, 2020.
http://www.zela.org/download/impact-of-covid-19-response-mechanisms-on-children-in-selected-gold-and-diamond-mining-communities-in-zimbabwe-2/ - Chingono, Nyasha. 'I need money for school': the children forced to pan for gold in Zimbabwe. The Guardian. November 13, 2020.
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/nov/13/i-need-money-for-school-the-children-forced-to-pan-for-gold-in-zimbabwe - ILO Committee of Experts. Individual Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) Zimbabwe (ratification: 2000). Published 2021.
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:4051487 - Mananavire, Bridget. Nearly 5,000 children live on streets. March 20, 2017.
https://bettercarenetwork.org/sites/default/files/Nearly.pdf - Muradzikwa, Sam. Child poverty fuelling child labour worldwide. The Chronicle, June 14, 2017.
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http://allafrica.com/stories/201703220664.html - New Zimbabwe. Over 20k Zim Children Turn To Vending As Economy Screams. August 14, 2020.
https://www.newzimbabwe.com/over-20k.-children-turn-to-vending-as-economy-screams/ - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. February 5, 2020.
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https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/19/zimbabwe-needs-aid-to-prevent-further-crisis-warns-ruling-party - UNICEF. UNICEF 2018 Social Protection Budget Brief. April 2018.
https://www.unicef.org/esaro/UNICEF-Zimbabwe-2018-Social-Protection-Budget-Brief.pdf - UN News. Zimbabwe ‘facing worst hunger crisis in a decade’. December 3, 2019.
https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/12/1052621 - U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2019: Zimbabwe. Washington, DC, June 2019.
https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2019-Trafficking-in-Persons-Report.pdf - U.S. Embassy- Harare. Reporting. February 28, 2019.
- Saunyama, Jairos. Living conditions fuel child sexual exploitation in Hopley. NewsDay, August 19, 2017.
https://www.newsday.co.zw/2017/08/living-conditions-fuel-child-sexual-exploitation-hopley/ - Human Rights Watch. A Bitter Harvest: Child Labor and Human Rights Abuses on Tobacco Farms in Zimbabwe. April 2018.
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/zimbabwe0418_web_2.pdf - Chitagu, Tatenda. Rampant Child Labour Sours Lowveld’s Sugarcane Industry. The Standard, June 30, 2019.
https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2019/06/30/rampant-child-labour-sours-lowvelds-sugarcane-industry/ - Swira, Jimmy. Children Forced Into Gold Panning to Make Ends Meet. African Mining Brief, September 10, 2020.
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https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/zimbabwe-fragile-economy-forces-children-to-labor-in-mines-/1873032 - Karombo, Tawanda. Child prostitution in Zimbabwe spikes amid two other crises: Covid-19 and hunger. America Magazine, July 30, 2020.
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