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Darüber hinaus würden die Umfrageergebnisse darauf hindeuten, dass trotz des Rückgangs der kurdischen Macht in Kirkuk seit Oktober 2017 die Kurden von allen Gemeinschaften immer noch als die Gruppe mit dem größten Einfluss innerhalb der Gesellschaft gesehen werde. Assyrer hätten mit ihrer geringen Zahl den geringsten Einfluss, gefolgt von sunnitischen Arabern. Den arabischen Schiiten werde ein relativ hoher Einfluss zugeschrieben; dies sei jedoch in engem Zusammenhang mit den sicherheitsrelevanten Veränderungen seit Oktober 2017 zu sehen. (O‘Driscoll, 1. Juni 2021, Privilege)

Im Folgenden finden Sie Informationen aus den vergangenen zwölf Monaten zur möglichen Diskriminierung von Kurd·innen in der Provinz Kirkuk:

Al-Quds, eine palästinensisch-arabische Tageszeitung mit Sitz in Jerusalem, schreibt in einem Artikel vom August 2020, dass kurdische politische Kräfte der lokalen Regierung in Kirkuk vorwerfen würden eine Arabisierungspolitik in der Stadt umzusetzen. Araber würden die Kontrolle über kurdisches Land übernehmen. Eine beschuldigte Bäuerin habe angegeben, dass sie ursprünglich aus der Region stamme und ein Recht auf ihren Besitz habe.

Gleichzeitig habe das Komitee zur Verteidigung der Pressefreiheit und der Journalistenrechte der Journalistengewerkschaft Kurdistans Verstöße gegen kurdische Journalist·innen in Kirkuk gemeldet. Kurdische Journalist·innen seien von Sicherheitskräften daran gehindert worden ihren Beruf auszuüben und verhaftet worden. (Al-Quds, 3. August 2020)

Kurdistan 24 zitiert Ende August 2020 Jamal Mohammed, ein Mitglied des irakischen Parlaments. Laut Mohammed würden Kurden in Kirkuk eine unverhältnismäßig geringe Anzahl von Positionen im Sicherheitsdienst bekleiden. Von 276 Mitgliedern des Sicherheitsorgans in Kirkuk seien 141 ethnische Araber, 111 Turkmenen, und nur 24 Mitglieder seien Kurden. (Kurdistan 24., 29. August 2020)

Voice of America (VOA) zitiert im September 2020 die Regierung von Kurdistan. Es werde vor wachsenden ethnischen Spannungen in den umstrittenen Gebieten des Landes, unter anderem in Kirkuk, gewarnt. Kurdische Familien würden gewaltsam aus ihren Häusern vertrieben und Kurd·innen, die sich geweigert hätten zu gehen, hätten berichtet, dass ihre Weizenfelder in der Nacht von Unbekannten in Brand gesteckt worden seien. (VOA, 25. September 2020)

Rudaw berichtet im März 2021, dass die Provinzregierung eine offizielle Beschilderung in der Stadt verwende, die nur auf Arabisch und manchmal auf Englisch verfasst sei. Im Jahr 2012 habe der Provinzrat von Kirkuk beschlossen, dass alle Regierungsbeschilderungen in den Sprachen der vier wichtigsten ethnischen Gruppen erfolgen müssten: Arabisch, Kurdisch, Turkmenisch und Syrisch. Das Regierungsgebäude, das Berufungsgericht und der Flughafen würden zu den vielen Orten in Kirkuk mit neuen Schildern in Arabisch und etwas Englisch, aber ohne Kurdisch, Turkmenisch oder Syrisch gehören. Kurdische Bewohner·innen würden berichten, dass das Problem über die Beschilderung hinausgehe und sie ihre Sprache in offiziellen Einrichtungen nicht sprechen könnten. Sie seien in Regierungsgebäuden gezwungen auf Arabisch oder Turkmenisch zu sprechen, um zu kommunizieren. Von lokaler Regierungsseite sei angegeben worden, dass sie das Problem mit den Schildern beheben würden. (Rudaw, 26. März 2021)

Shafaq News berichtet im Juni 2021 von einer Pressekonferenz der kurdischen politischen Parteien in Kirkuk. Laut den Parteien sei der kurdische Büroleiter der Unabhängigen Wahlkommission (Independent High Electoral Commission, IHEC) willkürlich entlassen worden, ohne die gesetzlichen Vorgaben zu beachten. Außerdem hätten Kurden das Recht darauf 50 Prozent der Mitarbeiter·innen im Büro der Kirkuk-Kommission zu beschäftigen. Es seien jedoch nur 25 Prozent der Mitarbeiter·innen kurdisch. (Shafaq News, 8. Juni 2021)

Das Washington Kurdish Institute (WKI) schreibt im Juli 2021, dass das Bildungsministerium die Fächer reduziert habe, über die Prüfungen abgelegt werden müssen, um Schüler·innen zu helfen das Schuljahr nach Monaten von pandemiebedingtem Lockdown positiv abzuschließen. Kurdische Studien in Kirkuk seien, zum Ärger der Kurden, aus dieser Entscheidung jedoch ausgeschlossen gewesen. Laut WKI habe eine diskriminierende Politik und die Arabisierung gegenüber den Kurden in Kirkuk seit dem 16. Oktober 2017 (der Tag, an dem die nationalen irakischen Streitkräfte militärisch in Kirkuk vorgegangen sind, um nach dem kurdischen Unabhängigkeitsreferendum vom September 2017 die Stadt wieder unter nationale Kontrolle zu bringen, Anmerkung ACCORD) dramatisch zugenommen. (WKI, 17. Juli 2021)

WKI behauptet in einer Veröffentlichung vom Juli 2021, dass Kurden in Kirkuk einem großen Druck ausgesetzt seien. Offizielle Stellen in Bagdad hätten mindestens 120 kurdische Beamte durch Araber und Turkmenen ersetzt (WKI, 24. Juli 2021)

Zusätzliche Informationen über die Lage von Kurden in Kirkuk finden Sie auch in der folgenden Anfragebeantwortung von ACCORD vom September 2019:

·      ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin & Asylum Research and Documentation: Anfragebeantwortung zum Irak: Lage von Kurden in Kirkuk; Lage in der Autonomen Kurdenregion (insbesondere für Kurden) [a-11085], 19. September 2019
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2016784.htm

 

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 16. Juli 2021)

·      ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin & Asylum Research and Documentation: Anfragebeantwortung zum Irak: Lage von Kurden in Kirkuk; Lage in der Autonomen Kurdenregion (insbesondere für Kurden) [a-11085], 19. September 2019
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2016784.html

·      Al-Quds: Irakische Kurden werfen Der Regierung von Kirkuk vor, die Arabisierung der Stadt anzustreben: Warnungen vor Konflikten mit Arabern und Forderungen an Kadhimi eingreifen
[أكراد العراق يتهمون إدارة كركوك بالسعي لتعريب المدينة: تحذيرات من نزاع مع العرب ومطالبات للكاظمي بالتدخل], 3. August 2020
https://www.alquds.co.uk/%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82-%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%87%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%88%D9%83-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9/

·      Arab America: Kirkuk: The Iraqi City of Black Gold, 17. März 2021
https://www.arabamerica.com/kirkuk-the-iraqi-city-of-black-gold/

·      IRIS – Institute of Regional and International Studies, American University of Sulaimani: Displacement and Iraq’s Political Marketplace: Addressing Political Barriers to IDP Return, Februar 2021
https://auis.edu.krd/iris/sites/default/files/iris_displacementreport_singlepages.pdf

·      Kurdistan 24: Iraqi lawmakers allege anti-Kurdish discrimination in Kirkuk, call on PM to take action, 29. August 2020
https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/23044-Iraqi-lawmakers-allege-anti-Kurdish-discrimination-in-Kirkuk,-call-on-PM-to-take-action

·      O’Driscoll Dylan: Everyday peace and conflict: (un)privileged interactions in Kirkuk, Iraq, Third World Quarterly, 1. Juni 2021
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2021.1925104

·      Rudaw: Arabic only: Kirkuk erases Kurdish from official signage, 26. März 2021
https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/26032021

·      Shafaq News: Kurdish parties in Kirkuk reproach the administrative changes in IHEC's office in the governorate, 8. Juni 2021
https://shafaq.com/en/Iraq-News/Kurdish-parties-in-Kirkuk-reproach-the-administrative-changes-in-IHEC-s-office-in-the-governorate

·      VOA – Voice of America: Kurds Warn of Mounting Ethnic Tensions in Iraq, 25. September 2020
https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/kurds-warn-mounting-ethnic-tensions-iraq

·      WKI – Washington Kurdish Institute: Kirkuk Minute June 17, 2021, 17. Juli 2021
https://dckurd.org/2021/06/18/kirkuk-minute-june-17-2021/

·      WKI – Washington Kurdish Institute: Kirkuk Minute June 24, 2021, 24. Juli 2021
https://dckurd.org/2021/06/25/kirkuk-minute-june-24-2021/

 

Anhang: Quellenbeschreibungen und Informationen aus ausgewählten Quellen

Arab America ist eine US-amerikansche Medienorganisation, mit Sitz in Washington DC, die laut eigenen Angaben mit dem Ziel gegründet wurde, ein akkurates Bild der arabisch-amerikanischen Gemeinschaft und der arabischen Welt zu zeigen.

·      Arab America: Kirkuk: The Iraqi City of Black Gold, 17. März 2021
https://www.arabamerica.com/kirkuk-the-iraqi-city-of-black-gold/

„In 1957, the Iraqi government ran a census that showed Kirkuk’s population. The census showed that about 36% of Kirkuk’s population was Iraqi Turk, 33% Kurdish, and Arabs and Assyrians were less than 23% of the population combined. That trend continues until today, where the Turks, Kurds, Arabs, and Assyrians or Chaldeans are each big groups in Kirkuk.“ (Arab America, 17. März 2021)

Das Institute of Regional and International Studies (IRIS) ist ein Forschungszentrum der American University of Iraq, Sulaimani (AUIS), das laut eigenen Angaben unabhängige und empirische politische Analysen zum Irak und zur weiteren Region des Nahen Ostens erstellt.

·      IRIS – Institute of Regional and International Studies, American University of Sulaimani: Displacement and Iraq’s Political Marketplace: Addressing Political Barriers to IDP Return, Februar 2021
https://auis.edu.krd/iris/sites/default/files/iris_displacementreport_singlepages.pdf

„Main Political Actors

The Badr Organization

Badr played a major role in the fight against ISIS in Kirkuk and gained prominence in provincial politics by mobilizing the Shia Turkoman community concentrated in the southern part of Kikruk. Following the October 2017 referendum, Badr is regarded as the most decisive actor in provincial politics in terms of setting overall parameters for the distribution of security actors and allocation of resources. Badr has co-opted the federal police, enjoys connections to the lead ISF [Iraqi Security Forces] commander (Saad Harbiya), and is represented politically by the powerful Mohammed Bayati. However, in the everyday brokering of deals among different political actors, the governor put in place by Badr is arguably just as influential as Badr itself.

Other PMF [Popular Mobilization Forces ] Groups

Other PMF groups such as the AAH and Kataib Hezbollah are present and operational in Kirkuk. They are mostly involved in pursuing their own economic interests, including smuggling opportunities.

Governor Rakan Al-Jabouri

Rakan al-Jabouri, a Sunni Arab from Hawija, rose from political obscurity to become the governor of Kirkuk. Badr negotiated Jabouri's appointment as governor in the hopes that he would protect Badr's interests while also avoiding any further escalation in tension between the two main Kurdish political parties, the KDP [Kurdistan Democratic Party] and the PUK [Patriotic Union of Kurdistan], which were at odds following the October 2017 referendum. He has proven adept at broadening his political network through ties with successive prime ministers, and he has appeased Badr, Sunni Arab tribal affiliates (particularly the Jabouris), and to a certain extent the Kurds through the allocation of jobs and resources.

Kurdish Parties

The PUK and the KDP no longer have troops positioned in Kirkuk, following the failed Kurdish independence referendum of 2017. This withdrawal weakened the position of the Kurds considerably, particularly in light of ongoing tensions between the two main Kurdish political parties (KDP and PUK). The KDP refused any candidate from the PUK to be governor, which resulted in the selection of Rakan al-Jabouri, a Sunni Arab from Hawija district in southern Kirkuk. However, the PUK still has influence over local affairs in Kirkuk, due to a large popular base among the Kurdish population there, and the fact that Badr/ISF has granted the PUK a role in the security sector through the presence of the PUK Asayish which is responsible for gathering intelligence and security oversight in the Kurdish-majority areas. The KDP, on the other hand, has formally boycotted participation in Kirkuk's political sector on the pretext that the city remains under occupation; however, this boycott has its limits since the Erbil-Kirkuk trade route is too valuable for the KDP to cut ties with the governor in any substantive manner.“ (IRIS, Februar 2021, S. 29-30)

Kurdistan 24 ist ein in der Autonomen Region Kurdistan (Irak) ansässiger Nachrichtensender.

·      Kurdistan 24: Iraqi lawmakers allege anti-Kurdish discrimination in Kirkuk, call on PM to take action, 29. August 2020
https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/23044-Iraqi-lawmakers-allege-anti-Kurdish-discrimination-in-Kirkuk,-call-on-PM-to-take-action

„A member of the Iraqi parliament on Thursday claimed that Kurds in Kirkuk hold a disproportionately low number of positions in the ethnically-diverse province's security agency, calling on Prime Minister Mustafa Al-Kadhimi to put an end to what he described as discriminatory practices by the local government.

Kurds in Kirkuk ‘are marginalized in the security and administrative departments... even though they constitute more than 50 percent of the province's population,’ said Jamal Mohammad, a member of the Iraqi parliament from Kirkuk, during a press conference.

Mohammad is one of six Kurdish lawmakers representing Kirkuk in the national legislature, out of a total of twelve from the province. The legal body has 329 seats. Discrimination against Kurds plagues many other public sector departments, as well as social life, according to the lawmaker.

Mohammad mentioned that, along with his five Kurdish colleagues, he had earlier met with the head of the National Security Agency, Qasim Al-Araji, to demand proportional representation in the agency's Kirkuk department. He also detailed the demographics of the 276-member security body in Kirkuk: 141 are ethnically Arab, 111 Turkmen, with the remaining 24 members being Kurdish.

He called for the handover of Kirkuk's security file to the local police instead of the joint military forces per Iraqi government order. He also stressed the need to end the province's militarization.“ (Kurdistan 24, 29. August 2020)

Dylan O’Driscoll ist Senior Researcher und Direktor des Programms für den Nahen Osten und Nordafrika (MENA) am Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).

·      O’Driscoll Dylan: Everyday peace and conflict: (un)privileged interactions in Kirkuk, Iraq, Third World Quarterly, 1. Juni 2021
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2021.1925104

„Taking as a starting point the conviction that everyday interactions carry the potential to be either conflictual or peaceful, this article examines people’s everyday behaviour in the deeply divided city of Kirkuk, Iraq. Using the historic bazaar in Kirkuk city as a site of analysis, and through a research survey of 511 people, it focuses on interactions between Kurds, Arabs and Turkmen. The article draws on Bourdieu’s theory of symbolic capital and takes an intersectional approach to analyse the everyday interactions in the bazaar to create a better understanding of the role of space and privilege. The results demonstrate that for the most part, at the everyday level people carry out acts of everyday peace rather than conflict. However, when everyday conflict does occur, those with the highest symbolic capital are the most likely actors.“ (O‘Driscoll, 1. Juni 2021, Abstract)

„Privilege, and local understandings thereof, is important to understand in order to analyse behaviour in relation to acts of everyday peace and conflict. The survey results suggest that despite the decrease in Kurds’ power in Kirkuk since October 2017, Kurds are still seen by all communities to have the most overall influence in the society (see Figure 2). Assyrians, with their low numbers, are seen to have the least influence, followed by Sunni Arabs. Arab Shiites are seen to have relatively high influence; however, this can be seen to be closely connected to the security changes since October 2017.“ (O‘Driscoll, 1. Juni 2021, Privilege)

Rudaw ist ein kurdisches Mediennetzwerk.

·      Rudaw: Arabic only: Kirkuk erases Kurdish from official signage, 26. März 2021
https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/iraq/26032021

„Kurds in Kirkuk are demanding the provincial government reverse a move to use only Arabic and some English on official signage in the multi-ethnic city.

‘We will not accept this move and we have told them this multiple times,’ Jamal Shkur, a Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) member in the Iraqi parliament, told Rudaw’s Hardi Muhammad on Thursday. ‘This is an intentional move to wipe out Kurds from Kirkuk and change the demographics of Kirkuk, just like in the times of Saddam.’

A concerted effort under Saddam Hussein’s Baath regime, mostly between 1970 and 1978, relocated Arabs from elsewhere in Iraq to Kirkuk, forcing out Kurdish residents. After 2003 and the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iraq began a policy of de-Arabization to reverse the demographic changes and land was returned to the original owners. In 2012, Kirkuk’s provincial council decided that all governmental signage must be in the languages of its four main ethnic groups: Arabic, Kurdish, Turkmen, and Syriac.

After 2017, when Kurds lost military and administrative control of Kirkuk following a bid for Kurdish independence, Kurds have said they are once again being forced off their lands, sparking fears of a renewed Arabization effort.

The governorate building, appeal court, and airport are among the many places in Kirkuk with new signs in Arabic and some English, but no Kurdish, Turkmen, or Syriac.

Local Kurdish residents say the problem goes beyond just the signage and they cannot speak their language in official settings.

‘All governmental proceedings have been changed to Arabic, and if you speak in Kurdish, chances are no one will help you,’ said Ali Abbas.

‘Most times when we go to a government building and ask for something in Kurdish, they do not respond to us so we have to switch to Arabic or Turkmen,’ said Farhad Khalid.

Officials in the governorate office said they will correct the problem with the signs, adding other languages.

‘We spoke to the governor of Kirkuk and his deputy – the signs will be changed,’ said Dler Shwani, head of public relations for the governorate. ‘All governmental building signs in Kirkuk should be labeled in four languages.’“ (Rudaw, 26. März 2021)

Shafaq News ist eine kurdische Nachrichtenwebseite.

·      Shafaq News: Kurdish parties in Kirkuk reproach the administrative changes in IHEC's office in the governorate, 8. Juni 2021
https://shafaq.com/en/Iraq-News/Kurdish-parties-in-Kirkuk-reproach-the-administrative-changes-in-IHEC-s-office-in-the-governorate

„Shafaq News/ The Kurdish parties and political forces in Kirkuk pilloried the recent administrative shuffles in the office of the Independent High Electoral Commission (IHEC) in the governorate.

The Kurdish forces said in a joint press conference held today, Tuesday, that dismissing the Kurdish office director was arbitrary without providing the legal imperatives.

‘The Kurdish MPs in the governorate are six out of twelve. This grants us the right to have 50% of the employees inside the Kirkuk Commission office. However, Kurds are merely 25%.’

The Kurdish forces reiterated their respect for all the decisions that guarantee the success of the entire electoral process.“ (Shafaq News, 8. Juni 2021)

Voice of America (VOA) ist der offizielle staatliche Auslandssender der USA.

·      VOA – Voice of America: Kurds Warn of Mounting Ethnic Tensions in Iraq, 25. September 2020
https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/kurds-warn-mounting-ethnic-tensions-iraq

„The Iraqi Kurdistan government is warning of mounting ethnic tensions in the country's disputed territories, saying that Kurdish families are being forcibly evicted from their homes by Arab settlers in a manner that ‚threatens peace and stability.’

Some security experts also say the renewed ethnic tensions over long-standing property ownership rights in Kirkuk could create a fertile ground for the Islamic State terror group to mount attacks, given that it maintains active sleeper cells in the multiethnic and oil-rich province.

Masrour Barzani, prime minister of the autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), in a statement Tuesday compared recent reported attempts to evict Kurdish villagers to former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's ethnic-cleansing policy, known as ‘Arabization’. […]

Though the tensions have not turned bloody yet, locals say the risks remain high as Kurdish farmers generally are armed. Some Kurds, who have refused to leave, say their wheat fields have been set ablaze during the night by unknown people.“ (VOA, 25. September 2020)

Das Washington Kurdish Institute (WKI) ist eine Bildungs- und Forschungsorganisation, die sich auf Kurden konzentriert. Es wurde im September 1996 in Washington DC von Dr. Najmaldin Karim gegründet. Ihre Ziele sind die Sensibilisierung für kurdische Probleme, die Förderung der Menschenrechte in kurdischen Gebieten und die Unterstützung der Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft unter den Kurden.

·      WKI – Washington Kurdish Institute: Kirkuk Minute June 17, 2021, 17. Juli 2021
https://dckurd.org/2021/06/18/kirkuk-minute-june-17-2021/

„On Tuesday, June 16, Iraq’s Ministry of Education announced the decrease of courses included in ministerial examinations to help students pass the school year after months of lockdown due to the pandemic. However, the decision excluded the Kurdish studies of Kirkuk, which raised anger among the Kurds. Discriminatory policies and Arabization have dramatically increased against the Kurds since October 16, 2017.“ (WKI, 17. Juli 2021)

·      WKI – Washington Kurdish Institute: Kirkuk Minute June 24, 2021, 24. Juli 2021
https://dckurd.org/2021/06/25/kirkuk-minute-june-24-2021/

„Iraq’s Prime Minister plans to create ‘peace and coexistence’ committees in four provinces, including Kirkuk, Nineveh, Dyala, and Saldin. Kirkuk’s committee members are supposed to include four members to each Kurds and Arab, three Turkmen, and one Christian. Kadhimi’s initiative aims to decrease sectarian and ethnic tensions. However, Kurds in Kirkuk remain under immense pressure, and Arabs and Turkmen have replaced at least 120 Kurdish officials by Baghdad.“ (WKI, 24. Juli 2021)