Children in Burma engage in the worst forms of child labor, including forced labor in armed conflict and commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. (1-3) Table 1 provides key indicators on children's work and education in Burma.

Source for primary completion rate: Data from 2018, published by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2020. (4)
Source for all other data: International Labor Organization's analysis of statistics from Labour Force, Child Labour and School to Work Transition Survey (LF-CL-SWTS), 2015. (5)

Based on a review of available information, Table 2 provides an overview of children's work by sector and activity.

‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.

In 2019, the UN Country Task Force for Monitoring and Reporting (CTFMR) on Grave Violations Against Children identified eight cases of recruitment and use of children under the age of 18 into the Burmese national military for combat roles. (31,34) In previous years, the national military used force and coercion to recruit children, and research indicates that these practices continued during the reporting period; however, the national military has cooperated with the UN efforts to eliminate this process, centralize recruiting, and initiate a "benefit of the doubt" policy in the recruitment process. (32, 34,35) Civilian brokers with military connections sometimes facilitate the entry into the military of underage recruits, in some instances bypassing standard age verification procedures. (3,13,34,36) In prior years, children were reported as having been used on the front lines as combatants. (3,34) The national military's "self-reliance" policy, which requires military forces to provide their own food and labor from local communities, has led to some units using civilians, including children, to porter goods, cook, and clean barracks in conflict areas. (3,34) During the reporting period, research indicated that children continued to work in these types of support roles, including 197 children found to be working for low-level national military officials in Rakhine and Kachin States. (3,32,34)

The national military agreed to apply the principle of the "benefit of the doubt," which states that when the age of a recruit cannot be definitively verified, the person is discharged. Research indicated that the national military adhered to this principle and during the reporting period it released 59 individuals whose ages could not be definitively verified. (31,34) As of April 2020, the national military had released 1,000 children, in accordance with the 2012 Joint Action Plan with the UN - which aims to end all government recruitment and use of children in its national military - including 54 children from April 1, 2019-March 31, 2020. (13,34,37,38) The national military announced that it had taken disciplinary action against 18 military personnel, including 10 military officers and 8 non-commissioned military personnel, for recruitment of child soldiers from April 1, 2019-March 31, 2020 under Section 65 of the Defense Services Act and Defense Services Rules of 1960. Since the CTFMR was signed in 2012, the military has prosecuted and convicted 65 commissioned and non-commissioned officers for the recruitment of children into the national military. (31,34)

The Border Guard Police continued to use children to perform unspecified labor during the reporting period. (3) Children were also recruited and used in armed conflict by non-state armed groups, including the Kachin Independence Army, the Karen National Liberation Army, the Shan State Progress Party/Shan State Army, the Ta'ang National Liberation Army, and the United Wa State Army. (31,36)

In a positive development, the UN Secretary General's Report on Children and Armed Conflict noted that due to "continued significant decrease in [the] recruitment of children into the military, ongoing prosecutions, and an agreement to continue to trace and release cases identified in previous years," the United Nations recommended that the Burmese national military be delisted for the violation of use and recruitment of child soldiers. (31,34)

Although there were no reports of child labor in the garment sector during the reporting period, the Confederation of Trade Unions of Myanmar reported that children use falsified documentation to obtain labor cards, which are needed to get work. NGOs reported that Burmese girls are trafficked to Burma's border with China for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. (2) There are also reports from the Myanmar Industry, Craft, and Services Union of children involved in commercial sexual exploitation along the borders of Kachin and Shan States. (2) Children living in refugee and internally displaced persons (IDP) camps are at increased vulnerability to sex and labor trafficking. (2,13)

The recruitment of young women, including girls, under false pretenses of getting a high-paying job in China only to be sold into forced marriages with indicators of sex and labor exploitation, is a common human trafficking trend in the country. (13,34) Traffickers often pose as recruiters and provide the necessary travel documents, sometimes including false birth certificates. (13) Furthermore, NGOs noted that children, in particular boys, in Shan, Karen, and Kachin States, and along the Thai-Myanmar border are used in illicit activities, including drug trafficking. (2)

Since August 2017, an estimated 728,000 people, primarily from the Rohingya minority, have fled from Burma to Bangladesh following acts of violence and ethnic cleansing perpetuated by the military in northern Rakhine State. (3,39-41) While the displacement of Rohingya people abated in 2018, conditions in Rakhine State were not conducive to the safe and voluntary return of refugees from Bangladesh in 2019. (3,40) As a result, an estimated 350,000 Rohingya children live in refugee camps in Bangladesh, at sites in which they are vulnerable to the worst forms of child labor. (13,40,42) Rohingya girls are trafficked from refugee camps for commercial sexual exploitation in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. (3,43) In some cases, girls are promised jobs in domestic service, but are instead forced into commercial sexual exploitation. (43,44) There are also reports that some girls are forced into domestic service, sometimes as a result of human trafficking, and are abused by their employers. (44-47) Rohingya children recruited to work outside of the refugee camps, such as in shops, fishing, and transportation, are reported to be underpaid or unpaid, unable to communicate with their families, and subjected to excessive working hours. (45)

Rohingya children internally displaced by the ethnic violence in northern Rakhine State are at increased risk to the worst forms of child labor due to a lack of access to education. Approximately 129,000 people, including children, were forced to reside in IDP camps in central Rakhine State. (40,48) Government restrictions on the movement of Rohingya in these IDP camps limit children's access to basic services, including education. (32,36,40) Furthermore, schools in Rohingya villages in Maungdaw, Rathedaung, and Buthidaung townships where the 2017 ethnic cleansing occurred have not re-opened. (49,48) Meanwhile, the government expects dozens of schools for ethnic Rakhine children in these townships to remain closed for the 2020-2021 school year due to continued fighting between the national military and an ethnic-Rakhine insurgent group. This conflict has displaced nearly 70,000 people, mostly ethnic Rakhine, into IDP camps in 2019 and 2020. (48)

Rohingya children throughout Rakhine State face severe restrictions on attending school due to discriminatory government policies and practices adopted following the 2012 riots and violent clashes between ethnic Rakhine and Rohingya communities. (50) Local officials and school authorities typically ban Rohingya children from attending government schools with ethnic Rakhine children. (50,51) The government also imposed severe movement restrictions on Rohingya, making it difficult for children to access schools outside of their IDP camps, villages, or townships. (40,48,52) These restrictions particularly affect Rohingya children ages 10 to 17 because they must travel to attend middle school and high school. (51-53) Many Rohingya children also lack the documentation that is required to attend middle schools and high schools in Rakhine State because the government denies them citizenship or officials refuse to register their household residency. (2,32,54,55) Since 2018, the government has forced over 13,000 Rohingya to accept National Verification Cards in Rakhine State, including over 500 children. However, naturalized citizens are not afforded full rights like those granted to full citizens, including the ability to run for high office or form political parties. (3,32,36,48,56) In November 2019, the government finalized a new national strategy on the closure of IDP camps and the resettlement of IDPs. (13)

Rohingya children's access to primary schools in their villages is limited due to a lack of schools, particularly in IDP camps, movement restrictions, and teacher absenteeism in Muslim villages due to security concerns. (57,58,48) Burmese law only guarantees education for Burmese citizens, and citizenship rates in Rohingya communities are extremely low. (48) In addition to Rakhine State, children throughout Burma face barriers to education, such as long distances to schools and expenses that include uniforms, books, transportation, and "extra fees" charged by teachers and schools. (1,15,25,44,59)

Refugee children and children from ethnic communities who speak different languages often face barriers in schools because the curriculum is taught in Burmese. (2,36,44) To address this specific issue, the Ministry of Education is working on an equivalency program that will allow students to sit for exams. Furthermore, there is no law that requires the school curriculum to be taught in Burmese. (2)

Burma has ratified all key international conventions concerning child labor (Table 3).

On June 8, 2020, the government ratified ILO C.138, becoming the 173rd ILO member state to ratify. (60,113) The government also ratified the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict. (2,13,31,61-63) As the protocol extends to non-state armed groups, the government filed declarations under Article 3(2) and Article (4) of the protocol to allow for implementation that reflects domestic realities on the ground, namely that the government does not take responsibility for non-state armed groups' adherence to the new protocol. (61,62)

The government has established laws and regulations related to child labor (Table 4). However, gaps exist in Burma's legal framework to adequately protect children from the worst forms of child labor, including criminally prohibiting child trafficking consistent with international standards and comprehensively identifying the types of hazardous work prohibited for children.

* No conscription (75)
‡ Age calculated based on available information (67,76)

During the reporting period, the government enacted the Child Rights Law, which prohibits the recruitment of children under the age of 18 into non-state armed groups and mandates the creation of a hazardous work list to replace the existing sector-specific lists; however, its implementing regulations for the law and the new hazardous work list have yet to be promulgated. It is expected that they will be published at the same time. (2,13,55,66) In addition, the government began drafting a law in 2019 on domestic workers that will address child labor issues in that sector, including the allowable age to enter into employment as a domestic worker. (2,13,44,77)

During the reporting period, with support from IOM, the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Myanmar Police Force drafted a new anti-trafficking in persons law that is currently awaiting approval. (13) The law, if approved, removes the requirement to demonstrate force, fraud, or coercion in order to constitute a child trafficking offense, and will allow for assets and proceeds found during trafficking in persons cases to be seized. (13,78)

The 2019 Child Rights Law established age 14 as the minimum age for work with some sector-specific laws identifying activities that are prohibited for children under age 18. (65,66,68) Furthermore, the 2019 Child Rights Law raised the minimum age for hazardous work from age 16 up to age 18, putting it in compliance with international standards. (66)

Under the 2019 Child Rights Law, Burma now meets international standards in the prohibition of commercial sexual exploitation of children. (66) However, the legal framework does not sufficiently prohibit the use of children in illicit activities, as there are no criminal penalties associated with the use, procuring, and offering of a child for the production and trafficking of drugs. (12,66,72)

Children in Burma are required to attend school only up to age 10. This standard leaves children ages 10 through 13 vulnerable to child labor since they are not required to attend school but are not legally permitted to work. (67,76)

The Occupational Safety and Health Bill was signed into law in 2019, but has yet to be implemented because the regulation bylaws are still being drafted. The bill expands the legal jurisdiction of the labor inspectorate to include additional industries, such as agriculture and construction. (77,79-81)

The government has established institutional mechanisms for the enforcement of laws and regulations on child labor (Table 5). However, gaps exist within the operations of the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief, and Resettlement that may hinder adequate enforcement of their child labor laws.

During the reporting period, the Central Body for the Suppression of Trafficking in Persons (CBTIP) conducted anti-trafficking awareness-raising activities that reached over 2 million people, including 34,289 students. (22,34)

In 2019, the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief, and Resettlement, in coordination with UNICEF and Save the Children, formed a taskforce to update the country's case management systems. The taskforce established terms of reference and began drafting standard operating procedures for case management with the goal of improving and standardizing the quality of social services provided by the government. (2) The draft is expected to be completed in early 2020. (2)

To combat administrative corruption within ministries, the Anti-Corruption Commission formed Corruption Prevention Units (CPU) in 14 ministries, including the Ministry of Labor, Immigration, and Population (MOLIP) and the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA), to enable recipients of government services to report corruption-related complaints, including complaints related to the worst forms of child labor. (84) In addition, the Anti-Corruption Commission launched a CPU toolkit mechanism for use on mobile phone messages to recipients of government services to check the effectiveness, timeliness, and efficiency of services provided. (13)

During the reporting period, the ATIPD remained hampered by resource constraints and limited training, resulting in areas of the country continuing to lack sufficient coverage. (2,13)

In addition, the Department of Social Welfare continued to lack a sufficient number of case managers to cover the entire country. Despite an increase in the number of case managers hired during the reporting period, case managers still had to cover two or more townships, in some instances, causing delays in case management services. (2,13,34) Furthermore, the Department of Rehabilitation lacks sufficient human resources to provide reintegration support. (13)

Furthermore, the Factories and General Labor Laws Inspection Department (FGLLID) is only mandated to inspect for child labor in manufacturing establishments and factories as laid out in the Factories Law (1951) and the Shops and Establishment Law (2016). This leaves certain sectors, including agriculture, mining, and fishing – where child labor is reported to occur – outside of the purview of the FGLLID. (2)

Labor Law Enforcement

In 2019, labor law enforcement agencies in Burma took actions to combat child labor (Table 6). However, gaps exist within the operations of MOLIP that may hinder adequate child labor law enforcement, including the lack of publicly available enforcement information and an inadequate number of labor inspectors.

During the reporting period, the Factories and General Labor Laws Inspection Department (FGLLID) conducted 1,635 awareness-raising seminars on labor laws, including child labor prohibitions, for 49,786 workers. In addition, government officials from MOHA, General Administration Department, MOLIP, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Irrigations, and the Anti-Trafficking Police unit received training on coercion and forced overtime, as they relate to issues of child labor. (2,34)

Despite having the authority to conduct unannounced inspections, labor unions noted that, in practice, factory owners are often given advanced notice that an inspection will occur. In addition, research indicated that there is a greater focus on the quantity of inspections rather than the quality, with complaints that labor inspectors talk to factory owners and supervisors rather than workers. (2)

NGOs noted that funding for the labor inspectorate is insufficient to cover transportation and equipment for labor inspectors, which discourages inspections of remote establishments. (2) An NGO also noted that when a complaint is filed by a worker, inspections often are not conducted in a timely manner. (2) Research indicated that the FGLLID does not consistently enforce labor laws when a violation is found, as there were instances during the reporting period for which fines were not imposed after a company official complained about receiving a violation. (2,12) Due to capacity and resource constraints, the FGLLID also has limited data on its own labor market, including the number of factories and basic resources such as furniture for labor inspector offices. (2,89)

The number of labor inspectors is likely insufficient for the size of Burma's workforce, which includes approximately 22 million workers. According to the ILO's technical advice of a ratio approaching 1 inspector for every 40,000 workers in less developed economies, Burma would employ about 558 inspectors. (75,90,91)

The government did not provide information on its labor law enforcement efforts, including labor inspectorate funding, initial training for labor inspectors, training on new laws related to child labor, the number of labor inspections conducted at worksites, and the number of targeted routine inspections.

Criminal Law Enforcement

In 2019, criminal law enforcement agencies in Burma took actions to combat the worst forms of child labor (Table 7). However, gaps exist within the Burmese military's practices that may hinder adequate criminal law enforcement, including the lack of publicly available data on enforcement efforts.

In December 2019, 70 prosecutors from the Union Attorney General's Office received specialized training from the U.S. Department of Justice on how to prosecute trafficking in persons cases, including child trafficking. Those trained will serve as "Trafficking in Persons Coordinators" in each of the country's prosecutorial districts, and act as the primary point of contact on all trafficking in persons cases, including coordinating with civil society, victims, and criminal law enforcement officials on the prosecution of cases. (13,84)

During the reporting period, the government dishonorably discharged a commissioned military officer who is currently in jail awaiting trial in a civilian court for facilitating the human trafficking of a young girl to China to marry a Chinese man. (13) From April 1, 2019 through December 2019, courts reached a verdict in 66 cases involving 163 alleged human trafficking perpetrators, including 89 individuals who were convicted and sentenced to more than 10 years in prison. (34) This included the conviction and life imprisonment of seven people for trafficking seven girls in a Chinese bride trafficking scheme. (13,34)

In 2019, the UN Special Envoy to Myanmar noted that, due to the efforts of the government to utilize enhanced screening protocols of recruits, cases specifically involving recruitment and use of children in the military were reduced to single digits. (2,13) While the government continued training its personnel on age verification at recruitment centers, insufficient identity document access and security issues continued to present challenges to the full prevention of the recruitment of children. (3,34,36,83) While the national military has taken action against national military officials for these crimes, the penalties imposed on members of the military for recruiting and using child soldiers are not commensurate with the seriousness of these crimes. (3,34,35) In past years, most of these cases reportedly culminated in reprimands, demotions, relocations, fines, or decreases in pensions, penalties significantly less than those prescribed by criminal law, which mandates prison sentences. (2,3,93)

The government did not provide information on whether training on new laws related to the worst forms of child labor or refresher courses were provided during the reporting period. (2,34)

The government has established mechanisms to coordinate its efforts to address child labor (Table 8). However, gaps exist that hinder the effective coordination of efforts to address child labor, including coordination among agencies.

* Mechanism to coordinate efforts to address child labor was created during the reporting period.

During the reporting period, the government formed a Committee on Underage Recruitment and a Committee for the Prevention of Sexual Violation - which is overseen by the CTFMR - with the goal of establishing more robust age assessment procedures, issuing national military directives prohibiting child recruitment, and establishing standards for national military personnel conduct. (2,34) Additionally, in July 2019, the government hosted the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Senior Officials Meeting on Transnational Crime, Working Group on Trafficking in Persons to work toward better coordination between regional governments to address human trafficking. (13)

Research indicates that the government continues to be hampered by limited inter-ministerial coordination across all government ministries. (13)

The government has established policies related to child labor (Table 9). However, policy gaps exist that hinder efforts to address child labor, including the adoption of policies that address all relevant worst forms of child labor.

In November 2019, the government adopted the ASEAN Declaration on the Rights of Children in the Context of Migration. (2) This Declaration calls on member states to increase action to address and prevent child labor and forced labor as they relate to migration. The Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement in Burma and the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security in Thailand signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to begin work on a cross-border protection framework to strengthen the protection of children in migration that will complement the Declaration. (2,34) This MOU will establish functioning cross-border child protection mechanisms and frameworks, including case management standard operating procedures. (34)

Although the government has adopted a policy to end the national military's recruitment and use of child soldiers and hazardous child labor, research found no evidence of a policy on other worst forms of child labor, including armed conflict by non-state armed groups, forced child labor, or commercial sexual exploitation of children. (34)

During the reporting period, the government began drafting and negotiating MOUs with the Governments of India and Vietnam to address the issue of child trafficking. (2,13,77) The government also negotiated a child protection mechanism with the Governments of Thailand and China, which seeks to assist children affected by the risks of migration, including human trafficking and forced labor. (2,13,77)

In 2019, the government funded and participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor (Table 10). However, gaps exist in these social programs, including the adequacy of programs to address all worst forms of child labor.

The MOLIP published the Labor Force Survey in April 2019, with data collected in 2017 in all seven states and regions, as well as the union territory, and found that 5 percent (623,000) of the total child population (12,410,000) were found to be working in child labor, and 608,000 were found to be in hazardous work conditions. (2,110) A second survey collected data from 2019 and is expected to be published in early 2020. (77) Data from this second survey was primarily collected from the Yangon, Bago, and Ayeyarwady Regions, and in Mon and Karen States. (2) The survey was done to help develop and establish a database that accurately reflects the current size and composition of the labor force in Burma, and includes information on child labor. (111)

The Forced Labor Complaints Mechanism lapsed in December 2018, but the ILO continued to receive and forward child labor complaints to the government. (2,13,41,77,89) In August 2019, the government approved a proposal to create a new government-operated complaints mechanism, and established an interim complaints mechanism while it worked with stakeholders to establish the new mechanism. The permanent mechanism was implemented in February 2020 and is able to receive complaints. (2,13,34,36,41,112) The National Tripartite Dialogue comprising members of the government, employers' associations, and labor unions, continued to work toward labor reforms by acting as the main stakeholder consultative body regarding the establishment of a formal complaints mechanism and the creation of the hazardous work list. (2,77)

Overall, the government lacks sufficient social programs to adequately address the worst forms of child labor, including forced child labor and the commercial sexual exploitation of children. (34)

Based on the reporting above, suggested actions are identified that would advance the elimination of child labor in Burma (Table 11).

1. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. January 18, 2019.

2. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. January 31, 2020.

3. U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report- 2019: Burma. Washington DC, June 20, 2019.
   https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-trafficking-in-persons-report-2/burma/

4. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education, both sexes (%). Accessed March 2020. For more information, please see "Children's Work and Education Statistics: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
   http://data.uis.unesco.org/.

5. ILO and Government of Burma. Analysis of Child Economic Activity and School Attendance Statistics from National Household or Child Labor Surveys. Original data from Labour Force, Child Labour and School to Work Transition Survey (LF-CL-SWTS), 2015. March 2020.
   http://www.mol.gov.mm/en/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2017/03/MMR-CL-Child-labour-in-Myanmar-IB-edit-final-version_21.11.2.pdf.

6. ILO. Agricultural Sub-sector Child Labor Survey: Children working in the cultivation and processing of Inland Fishing Stocks, Sugarcane, and Beans and Pulses in Myanmar. 2016.
   http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29335.

7. ILO. My-PEC Report: Opportunities to leverage income generation in marginalized villages: Labutta and Ye Townships. July 2016. Source on file.

8. Karen Human Rights Group. Surviving in Shadow: Widespread Militarization and the Systematic Use of Forced Labour in the Campaign for Control of Thaton District. January 2006.
   http://khrg.org/sites/default/files/khrg0601.pdf.

9. ILO-IPEC. Project Updates: Myanmar Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (My-PEC). November 2015–January 2016.
   http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=28578.

10. Woman and Child Rights Project. Children for Hire: A Portrait of Child Labor in Mon Areas. November 2013.
    http://www.rehmonnya.org/reports/childrenforhire.pdf.

11. Zaw, Hnin Yadana, and Soe Zeya Tun. As economy booms, children toil in Myanmar. Reuters, April 19, 2016.
    http://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-children-labour-idUSKCN0XG01F.

12. ILO Committee of Experts. CEACR Observation concerning the Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention, 1999 (No. 182) - Myanmar (ratification: 2013). Accessed: November 27, 2019. Source on file.

13. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. February 14, 2020.

14. ILO-IPEC. Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) Study on Child Labour in Yangon, Ayeyarwady Region and Mon State. 2015.
    http://themimu.info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Report_Knowledge_attitudes_and_practices_study_on_child_labour_in_Yangon_Ayeyarwady_Region_and_Mon_State_ILO_2015.pdf.

15. ILO-IPEC. Rapid Assessment on Child Labour in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone in Yangon, Myanmar. 2015.
    http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=27439.

16. Butler, Sarah. H&M factories in Myanmar employed 14-year old workers. The Guardian, August 21, 2016.
    https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/aug/21/hm-factories-myanmar-employed-14-year-old-workers.

17. Action Labor Rights. Under Pressure: A Study of Labour Conditions in Garment Factories in Myanmar which are wholly Korean owned or in a Joint Venture with Korean Companies. March 2016.
    http://www.cleanclothes.org/resources/national-cccs/under-pressure.

18. Theuws, Martje, and Pauline Overeem. The Myanmar Dilemma: Can the garment industry deliver decent jobs for workers in Myanmar? Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. SOMO, August 2017.
    https://www.somo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/170731-The-Myanmar-Dilemma-update-web-1.pdf.

19. BSR. Child Labor in Myanmar's Garment Sector: Challenges and Recommendations. May 19, 2016.
    https://www.bsr.org/en/our-insights/report-view/child-labor-in-myanmar-garment-sector.

20. Trautwein, Catherine. Telenor works to address its child labour troubles. May 22, 2015.
    http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/business/technology/14622-telenor-works-to-address-its-child-labour-troubles.html.

21. DVBTV. To the end of the world Pt 1: Burma's child labourers. March 14, 2016.
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0IHtg2kUjw.

22. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting update. February 14, 2020.

23. Htwe, Zaw Zaw. Child workers, labour rights violations alleged at brickyard. Myanmar Times, December 16, 2016.
    http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/24245-child-workers-labour-rights-violations-alleged-at-brickyard.html.

24. Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business. Children's Rights and Business in Myanmar. April 2017: Briefing Paper.
    https://www.humanrights.dk/sites/humanrights.dk/files/media/dokumenter/udgivelser/hrd_2017/briefing-paper-childrens-rights-and-business-in-myanmar_003.pdf.

25. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. February 14, 2018.

26. Agence France Presse. Beaten and Burnt: Myanmar's invisible child servants. Manila Times, September 22, 2016.
    https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/beaten-and-burnt-myanmars-invisible-child-servants-1465029.

27. Aung, Ei Cherry. Isolated and lacking labor rights, Myanmar's housemaids toil in silence. Reuters, July 4, 2016.
    http://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rights-housemaids-idUSKCN0ZL005.

28. ILO Committee of Experts. Direct Request concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)- Myanmar (ratification: 2013). Published 2019. Accessed March 5, 2019.
    https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3956517.

29. Telenor. Roundtable discussion on tackling child labor in Myanmar. July 13, 2016. Source on file.

30. Human Rights Now. Child Labour in the Myanmar Fishing Sector. October 2018.
    http://hrn.or.jp/eng/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/HRN_Child_Labour_in_the_Myanmar_Fishing_Sector_2018.pdf.

31. UN Security Council. Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict: A/74/845–S/2020/525. New York, June 9, 2020.

32. Targeted News Service. Fortify Rights: Myanmar - Ongoing Human Rights Violations Against Rohingya. December 6, 2019. Source on file.

33. Earth Rights International. We are Not Free to Work for Ourselves: Forced Labor and Other Human Rights Abuses in Burma. June 2002. Source on file.

34. U.S. Department of State official. Email communication with USDOL official. July 10, 2020.

35. ILO Committee of Experts. Observation concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)- Myanmar (ratification: 2013).R Published 2019. Accessed March 6, 2019.
    https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3956513.

36. U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practice- 2019: Burma. Washington, DC, March 11, 2020.
    https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/BURMA-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf.

37. Han, Betty Naw. Tatmadaw discharges young soldiers. Myanmar Times, April 3, 2019.
    https://www.mmtimes.com/news/tatmadaw-discharges-young-soldiers.html.

38. UNICEF. Thirty-two children and young people released by the Myanmar Armed Forces. March 31, 2019. .
    https://www.unicef.org/eap/press-releases/thirty-two-children-and-young-people-released-myanmar-armed-forces

39. IOM. Thousands at Risk of Trafficking Amid Rohingya Refugee Crisis. July 31, 2018.
    https://www.iom.int/news/thousands-risk-trafficking-amid-rohingya-refugee-crisis-iom.

40. UN Security Council. Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Myanmar. October 29, 2018: S/2018/956.
    https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N18/346/32/pdf/N1834632.pdf?OpenElement.

41. ILO. Application of International Labour Standards 2020: Report of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations. February 14, 2020.
    https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/applying-and-promoting-international-labour-standards/committee-of-experts-on-the-application-of-conventions-and-recommendations/WCMS_735945/lang--en/index.htm.

42. UNICEF. Rohingya Crisis. August 23, 2018.
    https://www.unicef.org/emergencies/bangladesh_100945.html.

43. BBC. The Rohingya children trafficked for sex. March 20, 2018.
    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-43469043.

44. ILO. CEACR Direct Request concerning Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) - Myanmar (ratification: 2013). Accessed: November 27, 2019. Source on file.

45. IOM. IOM Bangladesh: Rohingya Refugee Crisis Response Situation Overview of Human Trafficking. October 2018.
    https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/situation_reports/file/bangladesh_sr_201810.pdf.

46. Doherty, Ben. Displaced Rohingya Children Left in Limbo by Refugee Crisis. January 31, 2018.
    https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/01/devoid-of-hope-displaced-rohingya-children-are-vulnerable-to-trafficking-and-radicalisation.

47. Yu, Sylvia. Trafficking Crisis Looms For Rohingya Refugees In Bangladesh. National Observer, December 1, 2017.
    https://www.nationalobserver.com/2017/12/01/news/trafficking-crisis-looms-rohingya-refugees-bangladesh.

48. Government of Burma. Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement. Accessed: July 10, 2020.
    http://www.moswrr.gov.mm/index.php/main/department.

49. Phyu, Ei Shwe. Over 100,000 students still missing school in Rakhine. Myanmar Times, January 16, 2018.
    https://www.mmtimes.com/news/over-100000-students-still-missing-school-rakhine.html.

50. Amnesty International. "Caged without a roof": Apartheid in Myanmar's Rakhine State. 2017.
    https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/ASA1674842017ENGLISH.PDF.

51. UNICEF. Lives on Hold: Making sure no child is left behind in Myanmar. May 2017.
    https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/UNICEF_Lives_on_Hold_Myanmar.pdf.

52. Nicosia, Sal. Exodus Worsens Education for Rohingya Children. VOA News, October 2, 2017.
    https://www.voanews.com/a/rohingya-children-education-/4052917.html.

53. Carroll, Joshua. Myanmar's Rohingya deprived of education. Al Jazeera, August 4, 2014.
    https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/08/myanmar-rohingya-deprived-education-201484105134827695.html.

54. UNHCR Myanmar. Study on Community Perceptions of Citizenship, Documentation and Rights in Rakhine State. August 2016.
    http://themimu.info/sites/themimu.info/files/assessment_file_attachments/Community_Perceptions_FINAL.PDF.

55. Maung, Manny. Myanmar's New Children's Law a Step Forward. Human Rights Watch, August 27, 2019.
    https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/27/myanmars-new-childrens-law-step-forward.

56. UN. Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women - CEDAW/C/SR.1668. March 6, 2019. Source on file.

57. Plan International Myanmar. Joint Education Sector Needs Assessment, North Rakhine State, Myanmar. November 2015.
    https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/joint-education-sector-needs-assessment-north-rakhine-state-myanmar-november-2015.

58. Kaufman, Katrina. Myanmar: Rohingya Children Losing Future Without Education. February 23, 2016.
    http://www.voanews.com/a/myanmar-rohingya-children-losing-future-without-education/3203595.html.

59. Women and Child Rights Project, and Human Rights Foundation of Monland. Inaccessible and Under-Resourced: Concerns Over Education in Rural Mon Communities. June 2015.
    http://www.rehmonnya.org/reports/Final-Edition.pdf.

60. ILO. Myanmar ratifies the Minimum Age Convention. June 9, 2020.
    https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labour-standards/child-labour/WCMS_747376/lang--en/index.htm.

61. Wansai, Sai. Child Soldiers: Will the government ratification of UN treaty end child soldiering? Burma News International, October 7, 2019.
    https://www.bnionline.net/en/news/child-soldiers-will-government-ratification-un-treaty-end-child-soldiering.

62. Zue, Zue. Myanmar Ratifies UN Treaty Banning Use of Child Soldiers. The Irrawaddy, October 1, 2019.
    https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-ratifies-un-treaty-banning-use-child-soldiers.html.

63. Thura, Myat. Protections for children in armed conflicts submitted to parliament. Myanmar Times, August 30, 2019.
    https://www.mmtimes.com/news/protections-children-armed-conflicts-submitted-parliament.html.

64. Government of Burma. The Factories Act, Act 65 of 1951. Enacted: 1951; Amended: January 20, 2016.
    http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/MONOGRAPH/88477/123120/F1558150740/MMR88477 Eng 2016.pdf.

65. Government of Burma. The Shops and Establishments Law 2016. Enacted: 2015.
    http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/MONOGRAPH/101962/123121/F1897640234/MMR101962 Eng.pdf.

66. Government of Burma. The Child Rights Law No. 22/2019. Enacted: July 23, 2019. Source on file.

67. Government of Burma. The Child Law, No. 9/93. Enacted: July 14, 1993.
    http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/72890/74311/F1884014594/MMR72890.pdf.

68. Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business. Main Laws Applicable to the Mining Sector in Myanmar. May 23, 2018. Source on file.

69. Government of Burma. The Anti Trafficking in Persons Law No. 5/2005. Enacted: September 13, 2005.
    http://un-act.org/publication/view/myanmars-anti-trafficking-in-persons-law-2005/.

70. Government of Burma. Penal Code. Enacted: 1861.
    https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwji2_yl6YLRAhWBQyYKHX8xCIAQFggaMAA&url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs6/MYANMAR_PENAL_CODE-corr.1.pdf&usg=AFQjCNE5rfJSa4oUShcco2axdT1OdJRhpg&sig2=SRsVA11GQ.

71. Government of Burma. Law Amending the Ward or Village Track Administration Law No. 7/2012. Enacted: March 28, 2012.
    http://www.myanmar-law-library.org/law-library/laws-and-regulations/laws/myanmar-laws-1988-until-now/union-solidarity-and-development-party-laws-2012-2016/myanmar-laws-2012/pyidaungsu-hluttaw-law-no-1-2012-ward-or-village-administration-law-burmese.html.

72. Government of Burma. Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law No. 1/93. Enacted: January 25, 1993.
    http://www.asianlii.org/mm/legis/laws/ndapsllaorcln193893/.

73. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. June 2, 2017.

74. Government of Burma. National Education Law, Law No. 41. Enacted: 2014.
    http://www.myanmar-law-library.org/law-library/laws-and-regulations/laws/myanmar-laws-1988-until-now/union-solidarity-and-development-party-laws-2012-2016/myanmar-laws-2014/pyidaungsu-hluttaw-law-no-41-2014-national-education-law-burmese-and-english.html.

75. CIA. The World Factbook. Accessed January 19, 2017. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
    https://www.cia.gov/Library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2095rank.html.

76. Government of Burma. Education System in Myanmar: Self-Evaluation and Future Plans. Ministry of Education,
    http://203.81.81.180/dhel/education-system-in-myanmar/education-structure/.

77. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. E-mail communication with USDOL official. March 22, 2020.

78. Government of Burma. The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Law draft. 2019. Source on file.

79. ILO. Myanmar Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (My-PEC) Project: Technical Progress Report. September 30, 2018. Source on file.

80. Government of Burma. Occupational Safety and Health Law (Draft). 2017. Source on file.

81. Chau, Thompson. New labour law paves way for worker safety standards. The Myanmar Times, March 25, 2019.
    https://www.mmtimes.com/news/new-labour-law-paves-way-worker-safety-standards.html.

82. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. February 24, 2017.

83. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. February 15, 2019.

84. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon official. E-mail communication with USDOL official. April 3, 2020.

85. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. February 13, 2017.

86. Child Protection Unit, and Yangon Police's Anti-Trafficking Unit. Communication to USDOL Official. September 14, 2016.

87. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Email communication to USDOL official. February 23, 2018.

88. U.S. State Department official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. February 22, 2019.

89. U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices- 2018: Burma. Washington, DC, 2018.
    https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/burma/.

90. UN. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2017 Statistical Annex. New York, 2017. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
    https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/2017wesp_full_en.pdf.

91. ILO. Strategies and Practice for Labour Inspection. Geneva: Committee on Employment and Social Policy, GB.297/ESP/3. November 2006. Please see "Labor Law Enforcement: Sources and Definitions" in the Reference Materials section of this report.
    http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/gb/docs/gb297/pdf/esp-3.pdf.

92. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. June 5, 2019.

93. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon official. E-mail communication to USDOL official. May 31, 2018.

94. UNICEF. Seventy-five children and young people released by the Myanmar Armed Forces. September 3, 2018.
    https://www.unicef.org/eap/press-releases/seventy-five-children-and-young-people-released-myanmar-armed-forces.

95. ILO-IPEC. Project Updates: Myanmar Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (My-PEC). April 2014–June 2015.
    http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=27055.

96. ILO. Background Report for the National Action Plan on Child Labour in Myanmar: An overview of issues to be considered in the development of the NAP. April 27, 2017.
    http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_29337/lang--en/index.htm.

97. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. E-mail communication to USDOL official. June 1, 2018.

98. ILO. Myanmar Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (My-PEC) Project: Technical Progress Report. March 31, 2018. Source on file.

99. Xinhua. Myanmar designates priority areas to implement child labor eradication projects. October 2, 2019. .
    http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-10/02/c_138444483.htm

100. Government of Burma. Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (2018–2030). August 2018.
     http://themimu.info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/Core_Doc_Myanmar_Sustainable_Development_Plan_2018_-_2030_Aug2018.pdf.

101. ILO. Myanmar Decent Country Work Programme 2018–2021.
     https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-yangon/documents/publication/wcms_645042.pdf.

102. Government of Burma. Third Five-Year National Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons. 2017. Source on file.

103. ILO. Forced Labour Complaint Mechanism. Accessed February 9, 2017.
     http://ilo.org/yangon/complaints/lang--en/index.htm.

104. U.S. Embassy- Rangoon. Reporting. December 26, 2018.

105. UNICEF. Forty-six (46) children released by Myanmar army. Rangoon, March 12, 2016.
     https://www.unicef.org/myanmar/media_25304.html.

106. ILO. Myanmar Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (My-PEC) Project. October 25, 2017: Technical Progress Report. Source on file.

107. ILO. Myanmar Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (My-PEC) Project. Accessed February 9, 2016.
     http://www.ilo.org/ipec/projects/global/WCMS_356062/lang--en/index.htm.

108. ILO. SafeYouth@Work Project: Building a Generation of Safe and Healthy Workers. Accessed February 9, 2017.
     http://www.ilo.org/safework/projects/WCMS_516592/lang--en/index.htm.

109. USDOL. MAP16 Project Summary. Source on file.

110. ILO. Annual Labour Force Survey-2017: First Quarter Report. April 2019.
     https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-yangon/documents/publication/wcms_622556.pdf.

111. ILO. Myanmar - Labour Force Survey 2017. Report generated: April 2, 2019. Source on file.

112. Xinhua. Myanmar to set up forced labor complaint mechanism. May 26, 2019.
     http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/26/c_138090676.htm.

113. ILO. NORMLEX – Ratifications for Myanmar. Accessed: August 6, 2020. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:11200:0::NO::P11200_COUNTRY_ID:103159.