Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Ottawa

1. Chieftaincy Titles

In a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, a senior lecturer in African studies at the Department of African Studies and Anthropology at the University of Birmingham provided information pertaining to chieftaincy in the Yoruba-speaking areas of Kwara and Kogi State, and Yorubaland, which consists of the following states: Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Oyo, Osun and Ekiti (11 Oct. 2013). The Senior Lecturer added that the information she provided is "general information" as she has not researched the ritual practices of every community in Yorubaland (11 Oct. 2013).

According to the Senior Lecturer, chieftaincy titles are civic titles that are well-respected (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She indicated that these titles are usually given out by the Obas, or traditional rulers, of Yoruba towns and villages to leading members of the community (ibid.). Sources indicate that there are different types of chieftaincy titles, including traditional titles and honorary titles (Professor 11 Oct. 2013; Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). According to the Senior Lecturer, traditional titles are linked to the pre-colonial roles of chiefs in the town: for example, a "War Chief," or a chief that heads a religious cult, or a chief that looks after the market (ibid.). In a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, a professor of history at Brock University indicated that there are different levels of traditional titles, such as Kings, Senior Chiefs, and Junior Chiefs (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). The Senior Lecturer said that there are fewer traditional titles than honorary titles, and traditional titles are often considered to be of higher status (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She also said that some traditional titles are hereditary (ibid.). Similarly, the Professor indicated that traditional chiefs are hereditary chiefs (11 Oct. 2013). The Senior Lecturer said that honorary titles are usually given to recognize a valuable contribution that the recipient has made in their town (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She said that sometimes there is no clear line between a traditional and honorary chieftaincy title, as these terms are defined differently and vary depending on the community (ibid.). The Senior Lecturer added that some chieftaincy titles are given to people through association with a particular group, such as the Ogboni (ibid.). She indicated that such titles are usually offered to active members of such groups and these chiefs are usually publicly installed by the Oba or ruler of the town (ibid.).

The Professor indicated that chieftaincy titles vary depending on the size of the village, and stated that some chieftaincies are more powerful than others as each village and town is unique (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). He added that, in some towns, kings are "very powerful" and in some instances they have more influence than the President of Nigeria as they can "control" the local population (ibid.). The Professor said that there are "many kings," in Yorubaland as every town or village of the region has its own king (ibid.). He estimated that there are approximately 100 to 200 kings in Yorubaland, and about six to nine traditional chiefs in each town (ibid.). He explained that kings in Yorubaland are like mayors in the United States, and senior chiefs have a role similar to "council executives" (ibid.). According to the Senior Lecturer, being a chief in Nigeria is "not rare," as most people who have achieved something will be asked to be a chief at some point in their lives (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She added that most leading politicians hold several chieftaincy titles, and some churches and mosques give chieftaincy titles to their leading members (ibid.).

2. Chieftaincy Rituals in Yorubaland

In the context of her interview with the Research Directorate, the Senior Lecturer defined a ritual practice as "any activity that is aimed at affecting individuals and the world at large in a way that is not scientifically proven. For example, prayers, blessings, invocations are all ritual practices" (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She indicated that

many chieftaincy titles involve ritual practices in the way defined above. It is not possible to generalize, as most towns have their own traditions. In many towns, practices associated with traditional chieftaincies involve visiting important locations in the town, such as the Oba or ruler's palace, and wearing leaves with alleged spiritual powers under one's cap. (ibid.)

The Senior Lecturer indicated that in West Africa, Christianity and Islam have had a "complex historical relationship with traditional practices" (ibid.). She indicated that the "vast majority" of Yoruba-speakers are Christian or Muslim, and that "[t]raditionalists constitute less than 5 percent of the population" (ibid.). She said that over the past 20 years, strong Pentecostal Christian and Muslim Reformist movements have re-interpreted traditional practices as "evil" (ibid.). She explained that this is more prevalent among Christians than Muslims, and that some Christians are very concerned about "devilish traditions" (ibid.). She added that although some Christians and Muslims are comfortable with traditional practices and do not fear association with deities as long as they are not forced to participate actively in their worship, some Reformed Muslims and Pentecostal Christians may believe that ritual practices that are not explicitly Muslim or Christian constitute "idolatry" (ibid.). She provided the example of a party that is usually part of a chieftaincy installation, in which animals such as goats or cows are killed to feed guests (ibid.). If the chieftaincy title is a traditional chieftaincy title, the animals may be sacrificed to a deity, for example by invoking the deity (ibid.). She added that the calling of a deity may cause fear in some people, as they may think that deities can harm them (ibid.). According to a 2006 fact-finding mission to Abuja, Lagos and Benin City by Landinfo, Norway's Country of Origin Information Centre,

many Christian and Muslim Nigerians who themselves will not get involved in rites and rituals associated with traditional religion, may still regard occult forces as very real influences to be reckoned with in their lives. Thus the fear of being a victim of other people's (attempted) manipulation of supernatural forces is very widespread. (Norway Aug. 2006, 18)

According to the Senior Lecturer, a critical view of traditional practices is particularly strong among "younger and urban people" (11 Oct. 2013).

The Professor indicated that some senior chiefs are initiated in religious houses or shrines in villages where there is a belief in a particular God (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). He said that people in the village may bring items such as alcohol or palm oil and spill drops of these liquids on the floor, or may slaughter animals such as goats, sheep or dogs as a form of prayer (ibid.). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a senior lecturer at the Department of History at Obafemi Awolowo University in Ile-Ife, Nigeria, indicated that the process of becoming a chief may involve being taken "before some gods or shrines ostensibly to swear allegiance to the appointing authority" (Senior Lecturer, Obafemi Awolowo University 10 Oct. 2013). The appointing authority could be traditional rulers or more senior chiefs (ibid. 11 Oct. 2013).

The Professor indicated that until the 1930s-1950s, in many towns and villages, "blood rituals" were involved in the process to become a King (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). He also said that, even today in many rural areas in Yorubaland, there are no graves for Kings and there is a great deal of secrecy related to what happens to a King's body after he dies (ibid.). The Professor indicated that two stories exist in Nigeria that are believed by some locals, but that do not have any evidence supporting them (ibid.). One story is that, when a King dies, his corpse is cannibalized and different parts of his body are buried in various locations in the town (ibid.). The other story is that part of the deceased King's body, such as his heart or lungs, are taken out and preserved until his successor is appointed (ibid.). The successor then cooks the former King's body parts and law makers ask him what he has eaten, to which he replies, "I have eaten the Kingship" (ibid.). Similarly, an article by E. Dada Adelowo, a Professor in the Department of Religious Studies at Ondo State University, indicates the following:

we have rites in connection with the enthronement or coronation of a king.

Here the coronation of the AlaiUin of Oyo would be discussed. Rituals in connection with the coronation include the following:

1. partaking of the dish prepared from the heart of the late king which has been extracted and preserved. After partaking of this, he is told he has "eaten the king". Hence the origin of the phrase je oba, to become a king (lit to eat a king)
2. 'At a place called 'Bara', he worships at the tombs of his fathers; a horse, a cow and a ram are being offered at each tomb ... (Adelowo n.d.)

The date of the article could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Senior Lecturer at Obafemi Awolowo University indicated that ritual practices used to be prevalent, but have reduced with modernity (Senior Lecturer, Obafemi Awolowo University 10 Oct. 2013). However, he also indicated that individuals who are members of a secret cult before becoming chiefs may still have to undergo various rituals (ibid.).

The Professor, who defined ritual practices as practices "in which there is secrecy involved (aspects are hidden from the public)," said that ritual practices vary from village to village (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). He indicated that, although human sacrifice exists in Nigeria, it occurs "increasingly less in chieftaincies" (ibid.). The Senior Lecturer at Obafemi Awolowo University said that human sacrifice is against the law of Nigeria (10 Oct. 2013). For more information on human sacrifice and ritual practices in Nigeria, see NGA104218.

The Professor indicated that each village has its own culture and follows some deities, and one or two deities may be associated with the Kingship (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). He said that if a King breaks the oath of office that he took to obey the laws and deities, for example by not wanting to participate in ritual dances and songs, this will anger locals (ibid.). Sources indicate that, in September 2013, there was a protest in Delta state because the King of the town of Warri had recently become a born-again Christian and citizens of his town accused him of not following traditional practices (Nigeria Films 11 Sept. 2013; Professor 11 Oct. 2013). The Professor indicated that the king later agreed to "follow local culture" (ibid.).

3. State Response to Ritual Practices in Chieftaincy

According to the Senior Lecturer at the University of Birmingham, police involvement over the procedures involved in chieftaincy installation is rare, because the relevant ritual practices are not against the law (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She indicated, however, that police have been involved in investigating some traditional shrines in Yorubaland for some offenses (ibid.). She stated that police and government interfere in disputes over chieftaincy titles, such as when there is conflict in the town because two people want to be installed in a particular chieftaincy title (ibid.). Similarly, the Professor stated that the Ministry of Chieftaincy Affairs intervenes when there is a dispute about chieftaincy, such as when there are several candidates and factions supporting them (11 Oct. 2013). Further information on the Ministry of Chieftaincy Affairs' response to ritual practices in chieftaincy could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Senior Lecturer at Obafemi Awolowo University said that anyone caught practicing human sacrifice would be "severely dealt with" (10 Oct. 2013). The Professor similarly indicated that he believes that if a ritual practice, such as human sacrifice or blood rituals, is public, the perpetrators will be arrested (Professor 11 Oct. 2013). He added that this applies if the perpetrator is a chief, although some chiefs are well connected and may be friends with heads of police, governors, bankers or others, and may be able to bribe their way out of being arrested (ibid.). According to a 15 May 2000 article on P.M. News Nigeria, a newspaper distributed in Lagos, "five prominent Chiefs and indigenes of the area" of the Obokun local government in Osun state were arrested following the alleged ritual murder of a High Chief. Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response. The Professor said that locals generally do not accept ritual practices like human sacrifice and blood rituals, and would take measures against their own king if they think their king would bribe his way out of any state intervention for ritual practices (11 Oct. 2013).

4. Refusing a Chieftaincy Title

Sources indicate that there is competition for some chieftaincy titles (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013; Professor 11 Oct. 2013). According to the Senior Lecturer at the University of Birmingham, although chieftaincy titles are rarely refused, some people do refuse them (11 Oct. 2013). The Professor similarly indicated that some people do not want to be a chief, and added that some people accept the title, then decide afterwards that they do not want it anymore (11 Oct. 2013).

The Professor indicated that some people refuse chieftaincy because in some places, there is a strong association with local religious practices (11 Oct. 2013). The Senior Lecturer indicated that Christians and Muslims may refuse chieftaincy titles for religious reasons (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). She added that if a Christian or Muslim did not want to be chief, members of their religious communities would come to their defence (ibid.).

The Senior Lecturer said that a chief receives recognition, but also has an obligation to his or her community (ibid.). The Professor indicated that some people may refuse a chieftaincy title because of the obligations involved in the role (Professor 11 Oct. 2013.).

According to the Professor, "a chieftaincy title may be imposed on someone if a hereditary chieftaincy title is being passed through three branches in a family;" if the successor in one of the branches refuses the title, the community may punish the lineage by denying them the title in the next round of succession (ibid.). The Professor indicated that this may make the family force the successor to take the title, as abdicating the title may disgrace the person's family (ibid.).

The Senior Lecturer said that there may be situations in which some people feel pressure to accept a chieftaincy title (Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham 11 Oct. 2013). For example, if life is not going well for a family which worships a particular deity, some members of the family might put pressure on a specific family member to appease this deity for the benefit of the whole family, and this might include taking a chieftaincy title related to this deity (ibid.). A refusal to take such a title might appear to be "selfish" to the afflicted family, and there could be strong pressure or conflict (ibid.). The Senior Lecturer indicated that this would likely resemble a family dispute, and she does not believe that the person would be forced to take the title (ibid.). She indicated that if someone was under pressure to accept a chieftaincy title, they could move to a different town within Yorubaland "without being bothered" (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Professor indicated that some people believe that people who have refused chieftaincy titles have experienced "magical attacks" in which people attack them "magically or spiritually," but there is no evidence of this (11 Oct. 2013). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

For more information on consequences for a Yoruba individual who refuses a chieftaincy title and the protection available for those who refuse, see NGA103996.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

References

Adelowo, E. Dada. N.d. "Rituals, Symbolism and Symbols in Yoruba Traditional Religious Thought." [Accessed 22 Oct. 2013]

Nigeria Films. 11 September 2013. Reginald Chukwu. "Chaos in Warri as Oba Accepts Christ...Abolishes Rituals and Ancient Cultures." [Accessed 22 Oct. 2013]

Norway. August 2006. Landinfo. Geir Skogseth. Fact-finding Trip to Nigeria (Abuja, Lagos and Benin City) 12 - 26 March 2006. [Accessed 22 Oct. 2013]

P.M. News Nigeria. 15 May 2000. "Five Held Over Alleged Ritual Murder." (Factiva)

Professor of History, Brock University. 11 October 2013. Telephone interview with the Research Directorate.

Senior Lecturer in African Studies, Department of African Studies and Anthropology, University of Birmingham. 11 October 2013. Telephone interview with the Research Directorate.

Senior Lecturer in the Department of History, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. 10 October 2013. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Attempts to contact the following individuals and organizations were unsuccessful within the time constraints of this Response: Advocate and Development Planner; Anthropologist, formerly at New York University; Canada – Deputy High Commission of Canada in Lagos; Canadian Association of African Studies; Chief in Yorubaland and Igboland; Committee for the Defence of Human Rights Nigeria; Emeritus Professor, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London; Human Rights and Justice Group; Nigeria – Assistant Police Force Public Relations Officer of the Nigerian Police Force, Ministries of Local Government and Chieftaincy Affairs in Lagos and Ogun, National Human Rights Commission; Professor of History at the University of Texas; Professor of History and International Studies, University of Ilorin, Nigeria; Royal African Society; Senior Lecturer in the History of African Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. The Open Society Foundation could not provide information for this Response.

Internet sites, including: Africa Confidential; AllAfrica.com; Amnesty International; ecoi.net; Canadian Association of African Studies; Human Rights Watch; Nigeria – Ministries of Local Government and Chieftaincy Affairs in Lagos and Ogun; United Nations – Refworld; United States Department of State; Vanguard News.