Country Briefing

Area:	637,657 km2 [2]
Capital:	Mogadishu[3]
Population:	17.6 million (2022)[1]
Official languages:	Somali (Maay and Maxaa-tiri); second official language Arabic[5]
Currency:	Somali Shilling[4]

1. Brief overview of Somalia

Somalia was formed in 1960 from the merger of British and Italian Somaliland.[6] Mohamed Siad Barre came to power in a coup in 1969,[7] until he was overthrown by armed opposition groups in 1991.[8] This was followed by decades of civil war between rival clan warlords. Shortly after the outbreak of the civil war, the former British Somaliland in the north unilaterally declared its independence[9] , which was not recognised by any foreign government.[10] Puntland, located in the north-east, declared itself an autonomous state in 1998 but, unlike Somaliland, is not seeking independence.[11] In 2000, the largely powerless Transitional National Government (TNG) was formed.[12] A further peace process was initiated under the leadership of the Kenyan government, which was concluded in October 2004 with the election of Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as President of the second Transitional Federal Government (TFG).[13] The TFG initially ruled from Kenya until it moved to Baidoa, in southern Somalia, in 2006.[14] In June 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist umbrella group, took control of Mogadishu and much of the southern region[15] and enforced a strict interpretation of Sharia law in areas under its control.[16] This led to an intervention by Ethiopia and somewhat later by forces from the African Union Mission in Somalia, AMISOM. Ethiopia withdrew in 2009, but armed intervention by Kenya followed the advance of al-Shaabab, a jihadist offshoot of the ICU, in southern and central Somalia.[17] The TFG's transition process ended in September 2012 after clan elders appointed a new parliament of 275 members, who subsequently elected a new president.[18] In 2012, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud prevailed against Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed in the first presidential election on Somali soil since 1967. [19]

Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed "Farmajo" was president between 2017 and 2022 and Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected into office again in May 2022.[20] On 14 April 2022, the inauguration ceremony for the eleventh parliament was held in Mogadishu.[21] The Somali parliament consists of 54 members of the upper house (indirect election by regional assemblies) and 275 members of the lower house (indirect election by electoral college, consisting of delegates appointed by clan elders).[22] The majority population of the country is made up of ethnic Somalis, consisting of the nomadic, cattle-breeding Somalis and the largely sedentary, agricultural, cattle-breeding Somalis. In addition to this ethnically homogeneous group, there are the minority groups known as Sab, the ethnic Bantu groups and groups of Arab descent. The segmentary clan system is particularly important for the group of nomadic, cattle-breeding Somalis.[23]

2. Political situation in the federal constituent states of Puntland, Jubbaland, Southwest, Galmudug and Hirshabelle and in the "Republic of Somaliland"

An overview map[24] of the federal states can be accessed here.

The Somali provisional constitution of 2012 provides for a federal structure, among other things.[25] In October 2016, the process of establishing a federal system with six federal states (including Somaliland)[26] was completed with the formation of the Hirshabelle State.[27]

2.1. Puntland

In 2012, the Constituent Assembly in Puntland adopted a constitution.[28] Said Abdullahi Deni has been the President of Puntland since January 2019.[29] His election is said to have been affected by attempted interference by the Federal Government of Somalia (FSG). A member of the federal parliament, for example, accused the federal government of financially supporting candidates allied with it. However, this is said to have had no impact on the outcome of the election.[30] Puntland refuses to accept any plans to introduce a centralised system in the Somali constitution, while the Somali provisional constitution of 2012 provides for a federal system.[31] In January 2023, the Puntland administration announced that it would henceforth act as a government independent of the Somali federal government.[32] One of the reasons given was that relations between the federal member states and the federal government were still unresolved. In this context, Puntland demanded the implementation of the Somali constitution and the holding of a national referendum.[33] In June 2023, Puntland reiterated its position in a statement that it wanted to hold bilateral negotiations with the federal government. However, Puntland would not participate in the National Consultative Council (body of the federal government and presidents of the federal states; National Consultative Council). The National Consultative Council in August 2023, which took place in Galmudug, was attended by the presidents of all federal states, with the exception of Said Abdullahi Deni from Puntland.[34]

2.2. Southwest

The parliament of the federal state of South West was formed in 2015.[35] On 19 December 2018, Abdiasis Mohammed "Laftagareen" was elected president by local MPs. Laftagareen, a former member of parliament and minister, would not have won without the intervention of Somalia's federal government, according to the International Crisis Group (ICG).[36] The election process was postponed three times in November and December 2018 and the majority of candidates accused the Somali federal government of politically and financially supporting their preferred candidate.[37] In August 2023, the South West parliament approved the National Consultative Council's May 2023 agreement to hold the presidential and parliamentary elections in the state in November 2024. The opposition called for the elections to be held in January 2024 in line with the provisions made at a reconciliation conference in January and February 2023.[38]

2.3. Galmudug

In 2015, the Galmudug Assembly of 89 members was sworn in by the Federal Government of Somalia. However, Ahlu Sunna Wal Jama (ASWJ), a paramilitary group, refused to recognise the election results and set up its own administration for the parts of Galmudug under its control.[39] A peace agreement was reached between the two administrations in December 2017,[40] but in 2019 there were further disagreements and clashes with the ASWJ.[41] In February 2020, Ahmed Abdi Kariye Qoorqoor was elected president of Galmudug in a vote boycotted by some leaders.[42] In September 2023, the International Crisis Group wrote that Galmudug had repeatedly experienced unrest during its eight years of existence. The causes were power struggles between the elites, clan rivalries and battles with non-state armed groups. Interference from Mogadishu often worsened the situation. Although the situation in the state is currently calm, the elections scheduled for 2024 could increase tensions.[43] Further detailed information on the situation in Galmudug can be found in this report.

2.4. Jubbaland

In 2013, the federal government and representatives of Jubbaland signed an agreement officially recognising the Jubbaland administration. Ahmed Mohamed Islam "Madobe" was elected president.[44] In August 2019, Madobe was re-elected as president in Jubbaland.[45] The election process was characterised, among other things, by tensions between the federal government and the Jubbaland administration. Central to the political conflict were differing interpretations of the Somali Provisional Constitution regarding the role of the federal government in regional electoral processes.[46] In August 2022, Jubbaland's parliament extended President Madobe's term of office from four to five years.[47] Madobe continues to face strong opposition from some political leaders in the Gedo region. Jubbaland's opposition, based in Nairobi and Mogadishu, continues to oppose the extension of President Madobe's term.[48]

2.5 Hirshabelle

In September 2017, Mohamed Abdi Waare was elected President of the federal state of Hirshabelle.[49] This followed the formation of the federal constituent state and the establishment of the Hirshabelle Assembly in 2016.[50] On 11 November 2020, the regional assembly elected Abdullahi Ali Hussein "Gudlawe", who belongs to the Hawiye Abgaal subclan, as president of Hirshabelle; a member of the Hawiye Hawadle subclan was elected vice president. As a result, some members of the Hawadle sub-clan spoke of election rigging, among other things, and expressed concerns about power-sharing.[51] An informal agreement was reportedly reached between President Gudlawe and Hawadle leaders in February 2022 with a view to the Somali parliamentary elections held a few weeks later.[52]

2.6. Somaliland

Somaliland declared its independence in 1991 and, despite the lack of international recognition, has a functioning political system, government institutions, police forces and its own currency.[53] Muse Bihi was elected President of Somaliland in November 2017.[54] Parliamentary and local elections were held on 31 May 2021, which were won by the opposition and described by observers as a milestone in the democratisation of Somaliland.[55] However, tensions remain between Somalia and Somaliland, as Somalia rejects Somaliland's 1991 declaration of independence.[56]

In 2018 and 2019, there were also clashes between Somaliland and Puntland forces in connection with the disputed territories of Sool and Sanaag.[57] In 2023, there was repeated fighting in the disputed town of Laascaanood, the capital of Sool, mainly between Somaliland administration forces and Dhulbahante clan militias. The Dhulbahante are in favour of the disputed regions of Sool and Sanaag being part of Somalia and not an independent Somaliland.[58]

3. Armed insurgent groups

Since late 2006, al-Shabaab and allied militias have been waging an armed insurgency against the government.[59] Despite ongoing efforts by the Somali and international armed forces to limit the operational capacities of al-Shabaab, the group is still able to carry out complex, asymmetric attacks in Somalia.[60] The so-called Islamic State in Somalia has been operating as an organised group in Puntland since October 2015 at[61] and is led by former Al Shabaab commander Abdulqadir Mumin.[62] The group is still active and carries out attacks, although its operations are largely confined to the Bari region in north-east Puntland.[63]

4. Conflicts between and within clans

Conflicts between clans and retaliation for the death of clan members lead to an endemic cycle of violence in Somalia. Due to the proliferation of small arms, conflicts have become increasingly deadly over time. All aspects of Somali life, culture and politics revolve around clans. The main reasons for conflict between clans are competition over access to land, water and pasture.[64]

Further information on the clan system can be found in this report available on ecoi.net. ecoi.net search results on clan conflicts can be found here.

5. Women

Somali culture restricts women to the home and the family sphere.[65] Only 20 per cent of the members of the lower house and 26 per cent of the upper house are women.[66] Somalia ranks fourth to last in the world in terms of gender equality, maternal and infant mortality rates are among the highest in the world and child marriage is widespread.[67] 99.2 per cent of women (aged 15-49) are affected by female genital mutilation (FGM). Gender-specific violence is rarely reported due to a "culture of silence".[68] According to the USDOS, women and girls are affected by gender-based violence, including rape, when fetching water, at the market and when tilling the fields. Rape and gang rape are perpetrated by state agents, clan-affiliated militias and unidentified armed men. The police fail to investigate and ask survivors to do the investigative. Some victims of rape are forced into a marriage with their perpatretors. [69] While the Al Shabaab imposes restrictions on women, it also provides some security for women and often implements Islamic family law in a way that favours women. Some women also perform services such as recruitment, fundraising, espionage and arms smuggling for al-Shabaab. However, co-operation with the group is not necessarily based on sympathy. It is often a matter of survival.[70] ecoi.net search results on the situation of women can be found here.

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Footnotes

[1] The World Bank: Data; Somalia, undated, https://data.worldbank.org/country/SO

[2] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: World Factbook, Somalia, 17 January 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/

[3] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: World Factbook, Somalia, 17 January 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/

[4] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: World Factbook, Somalia, 17 January 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/

[5] The Federal Republic of Somalia: Provisional Constitution, 1 August 2012, Article 5, http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/Somalia-Constitution2012.pdf

[6] CARE International; USAID - US Agency for International Development: Gender, Cash Assistance, and Conflict: Gendered Protection Implications of Cash and Voucher Assistance in Somalia/Somaliland, 14 October 2019, p. 11, https://www.careevaluations.org/wp-content/uploads/CARE-Gender-CVAProtection-Somalia_land_final.pdf

[7] Deutschlandfunk: The fall of dictator Siad Barre, 27 January 2016, https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/somalia-vor-25-jahren-der-sturz-von-diktator-siad-barre.871.de.html?dram:article_id=343469

[8] Al Jazeera: Country profile: Somalia, 9 September 2012, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/08/201281985222499991.html

[9] BBC News: Somalia country profile, 2 January 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094503

[10] ISS - Institute for Security Studies: Overlapping claims by Somaliland and Puntland: the case of Sool and Sanaag, 4 December 2019, p. 25, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/ear27.pdf

[11] ISS - Institute for Security Studies: Overlapping claims by Somaliland and Puntland: the case of Sool and Sanaag, 4 December 2019, p. 25, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/ear27.pdf

[12] Balthasar, Dominik: Conflict Portrait: Somalia, published by bpb - Federal Agency for Civic Education (Germany), 20 November 2017, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2002968.html

[13] The New Humanitarian: Annan welcomes election of transitional president, 12 October 2004, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/fr/node/219360

[14] CFR - Council on Foreign Relations: Somalia's Transitional Government, 12 May 2008, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somalias-transitional-government

[15] Menkhaus, Ken: Somalia What Went Wrong?, 14 September 2009, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03071840903216395

[16] Al Jazeera: Country profile: Somalia, 9 September 2012, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/08/201281985222499991.html

[17] BBC News: Somalia country profile, 2 January 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094503

[18] European Parliament: Somalia: Concluding the transitional period or opening a new one?, 9 January 2013, pp. 2-3 https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/briefing_note/join/2013/491466/EXPO-AFET_SP(2013)491466_EN.pdf

[19] VOA - Voice of America: Somalia: No Popular Elections in 2016, 29 July 2015, https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-says-no-popular-elections-in-2016/2883749.html; VOA - Voice of America: Dual US-Somali Citizen is Somalia's New President-elect, 8 February 2017, https://www.voanews.com/a/somali-parliament-elects-president-under-tight-security/3714240.html; BBC News: Somalia country profile, 2 January 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094503

[20] BBC News: Somalia country profile, 2 January 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094503; UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2022/665], 1 September 2022, pp. 1-2, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2078696/N2257941.pdf

[21] UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2022/392], 13 May 2022, p. 1, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073538/N2233663.pdf

[22] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: World Factbook, Somalia, 17 January 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/

[23] Gundel, Joakim: The predicament of the 'Oday' The role of traditional structures in security, rights, law and development in Somalia, published by Logistics Cluster, November 2006, p. 4, https://cdn.logcluster.org/public/documents/Gundel_The%2520role%2520of%2520traditional%2520structures.pdf

[24] HRW - Human Rights Watch: Map of Somalia, 25 April 2016, https://www.hrw.org/video-photos/map/2016/04/25/map-somalia

[25] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: World Factbook, Somalia, 17 January 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/

[26] EISA - Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Somalia Civil Society Election Situation Room; Election Conflict Analysis Report for Somalia; Indirect Elections 2021/2022, p. 9, https://www.eisa.org/storage/2023/05/eom-report-2021-2022-civil-somalia-civil-society-election-situation-room-final-report-esr-eisa.pdf

[27] Bpb - Federal Agency for Civic Education: Conflict Portraits, Somalia, Author: Dominik Balthasar,30 November 2020, https://www.bpb.de/themen/kriege-konflikte/dossier-kriege-konflikte/54689/somalia/

[28] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 - Somalia, 13 March 2019, Section 3, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2004190.html

[29] UNSOM - United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia: UNSOM Congratulates Said Abdullahi Deni on Election as President of Puntland, 9 January 2019, https://unsom.unmissions.org/unsom-congratulates-said-abdullahi-deni-election-president-puntland-0

[30] UN Security Council: Letter dated 1 November 2019 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia addressed to the President of the Security Council; Letter dated 27 September 2019 from the Panel of Experts on Somalia addressed to the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia [S/2019/858], 1 November 2019, p. 23, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2019947/S_2019_858_E.pdf

[31] The East African: Regional feuds and clannism to decide Somalia election, 9 December 2019, https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/ea/Regional-feuds-and-clannism-to-decide-Somalia-election/4552908-5378730-a8d9nkz/index.html

[32] Somali Guardian: Somalia's Puntland state announces it is 'independent government', 9 January 2023, https://somaliguardian.com/news/somalia-news/somalias-puntland-state-announces-it-is-independent-government/

[33] Garowe Online: Somalia: Puntland suspends cooperation with central Govt amid fallout, 10 January 2023, https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/puntland/somalia-puntland-suspends-cooperation-with-central-govt-amid-fallout

[34] UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2023/758], 13 October 2023, p. 1, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101912/N2328915.pdf

[35] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 - Somalia, 13 March 2019, Section 3, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2004190.html

[36] International Crisis Group: Somalia's South West State: A New President Installed, a Crisis Inflamed, 24 December 2018, https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somalia/somalias-south-west-state-new-president-installed-crisis-inflamed

[37] UN Security Council: Letter dated 1 November 2019 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia addressed to the President of the Security Council; Letter dated 27 September 2019 from the Panel of Experts on Somalia addressed to the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia [S/2019/858], 1 November 2019, p. 21, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2019947/S_2019_858_E.pdf

[38] UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2023/758], 13 October 2023, p. 2, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101912/N2328915.pdf

[39] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 - Somalia, 13 March 2019, Section 3, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2004190.html

[40] Somalia Newsroom: Can Somalia Seal the Galmudug-ASWJ Peace Deal?, 20 January 2018, https://somalianewsroom.com/2018/01/20/can-somalia-seal-the-galmudug-aswj-peace-deal/

[41] Hiiraan Online: How should Galmudug state deal with the resurgence of Sufi militias?, 20 November 2021, https://www.hiiraan.com/op4/2021/nov/184606/how_should_galmudug_state_deal_with_the_resurgence_of_sufi_militias.aspx

[42] The Nation (Kenya): Farmaajo's onslaught on 'rebel' states goes on amid opposition cries, 8 February 2020, https://www.nation.co.ke/news/africa/Farmaajo-onslaught-rebel-Somalia-federal-states-goes-on/1066-5448800-2tinvqz/index.html

[43] International Crisis Group: Avoiding a New Cycle of Conflict in Somalia's Galmudug State, 25 September 2023, https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somalia/b193-avoiding-new-cycle-conflict-somalias-galmudug-state

[44] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 - Somalia, 13 March 2019, Section 3, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2004190.html

[45] Al Jazeera: Somalia's Jubaland region re-elects Ahmed Mohamed as president, 22 August 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/08/somalia-jubaland-region-elects-ahmed-mohamed-president-190822091045118.html

[46] UN Security Council: Letter dated 1 November 2019 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia addressed to the President of the Security Council; Letter dated 27 September 2019 from the Panel of Experts on Somalia addressed to the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia [S/2019/858], 1 November 2019, p. 23, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2019947/S_2019_858_E.pdf

[47] Horn Diplomat: Somalia: Jubaland state parliament extends president Madobe's mandate from 4 to 5 years, 21 August 2022, https://www.horndiplomat.com/2022/08/21/somalia-jubaland-state-parliament-extends-president-madobes-mandate-from-4-to-5-years/

[48] UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2023/758], 13 October 2023, p. 2, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101912/N2328915.pdf

[49] UNSOM - United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia: Mohamed Abdi Waare inaugurated as the second President of HirShabelle state, 24 October 2017, https://unsom.unmissions.org/mohamed-abdi-waare-inaugurated-second-president-hirshabelle-state

[50] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 - Somalia, 13 March 2019, Section 3, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2004190.html

[51] UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia; Report of the Secretary-General [S/2021/154], 17 February 2021, p. 2, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2046029/S_2021_154_E.pdf

[52] UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2022/392], 13 May 2022, p. 2, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073538/N2233663.pdf

[53] BBC News: Somaliland profile, 2 January 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14115069

[54] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 - Somalia, 13 March 2019, Section 3, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2004190.html

[55] ICG - International Crisis Group: Building on Somaliland's Successful Elections, 12 August 2021, https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somaliland/b174-building-somalilands-successful-elections

[56] ICG - International Crisis Group: Somalia-Somaliland: The Perils of Delaying New Talks, 12 July 2019, p. i, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2012725/280-somalia-somaliland.pdf

[57] ISS - Institute for Security Studies: Overlapping claims by Somaliland and Puntland: the case of Sool and Sanaag, 4 December 2019, p. 3, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/ear27.pdf

[58] HRW - Human Rights Watch: World Report 2024 – Somalia, 11 January 2024, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2103135.html; UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2023/758], 13 October 2023, pp. 2-3, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101912/N2328915.pdf; UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2023/443], 15 June 2023, pp. 2-3, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2094041/N2316278.pdf; UN Security Council: Situation in Somalia - Report of the Secretary-General [S/2023/109], 16 February 2023, pp. 2-3, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2087441/N2303721.pdf

[59] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Terrorism 2018 - Chapter 5 - Al-Shabaab, 1 November 2019, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2019523.html

[60] UN Security Council: Letter dated 25 August 2023 from the Panel of Experts on Somalia addressed to the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Al-Shabaab [S/2023/724], 2 October 2023, p. 3, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100037/N2325555.pdf

[61] Weiss, Caleb: Reigniting the Rivalry: The Islamic State in Somalia vs. al-Shabaab, published by CTC - Combating Terrorism Center, April 2019, https://ctc.westpoint.edu/reigniting-rivalry-islamic-state-somalia-vs-al-shabaab/

[62] UN Security Council: Fifteenth report of the Secretary-General on the threat posed by ISIL (Da'esh) to international peace and security and the range of United Nations efforts in support of Member States in countering the threat [S/2022/576], 26 July 2022, p. 5, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2076995/N2243078.pdf

[63] UN Security Council: Letter dated 25 August 2023 from the Panel of Experts on Somalia addressed to the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Al-Shabaab [S/2023/724], 2 October 2023, p. 3, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100037/N2325555.pdf

[64] HRC - UN Human Rights Council: Situation of human rights in Somalia; Report of the Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia [A/HRC/42/62], 16 September 2019, p. 12, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2016424/A_HRC_42_62_AEV.docx

[65] UN Women Africa: Somalia, undated, https://africa.unwomen.org/en/where-we-are/eastern-and-southern-africa/somalia

[66] EISA - Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Why gender quotas don't work in Somalia? The influence of the electoral system and clan politics, September 2022, p. 6, https://www.eisa.org/storage/2023/07/policy-brief-2022-gender-quotas-somalia-eisa.pdf

[67] UN Women Africa: Somalia, undated, https://africa.unwomen.org/en/where-we-are/eastern-and-southern-africa/somalia

[68] DNS - Directorate of National Statistics, Federal Government of Somalia: The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, p. 193; 220, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2029152/FINAL+SHDS+Report+2020_V7_0.pdf

[69] USDOS - US Department of State: 2022 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Somalia, 20 March 2023, Section 6, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2089065.html

[70] International Crisis Group: Women and Al-Shabaab's Insurgency, 27 June 2019, pp. 1-2, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2011897/b145-women-and-al-shabaab_0.pdf; see also: Chatzitheodorou, Christina: How women's involvement strengthens Al-Shabaab's insurgency and what to do about it, published by King's College London, 12 March 2021, https://www.kcl.ac.uk/how-womens-involvement-strengthens-al-shabaabs-insurgency-and-what-to-do-about-it