Somalia - Country Briefing

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Country Briefing

Area: 637,657 km2
Capital: Mogadishu
Population: 18.4 million (2023)
Official languages: Somali (Maay and Maxaa-tiri); second official language Arabic
Currency: Somali Shilling

1. Brief overview

Somalia was formed in 1960 from the merger of British and Italian Somaliland (CARE International & USAID, 14 October 2019, p. 11). In 1969, Mohamed Siad Barre came to power in a coup (Deutschlandfunk, 27 January 2016), until he was overthrown by armed opposition groups in 1991 (Al Jazeera, 9 September 2012). This was followed by decades of civil war between rival clan warlords. Shortly after the outbreak of the civil war, the former British Somaliland in the north unilaterally declared its independence (BBC News, 2 January 2024), but this was not recognised by any foreign government (ISS, 4 December 2019, p. 25, endnote 1). Puntland, located in the north-east, declared itself an autonomous state in 1998 but, unlike Somaliland, is not seeking independence (ISS, 4 December 2019, p. 5). In 2000, the Transitional National Government (TNG), which remained largely powerless, was formed (Balthasar, 11 February 2025). Another peace process was initiated under the leadership of the Government of Kenya, which was concluded in October 2004 with the election of Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as President of the second Transitional Federal Government (TFG) (TNH, 12 October 2004). The TFG initially ruled from Kenya until it moved to Baidoa, in southern Somalia, in 2006 (CFR, 12 May 2008). In June 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist umbrella group, took control of Mogadishu and much of the southern region (Menkhaus, 14 September 2009) and enforced a strict interpretation of Sharia law in areas under its control (Al Jazeera, 9 September 2012). This led to an intervention by Ethiopia and somewhat later by forces of the African Union Mission in Somalia, AMISOM. Ethiopia withdrew in 2009, but armed intervention by Kenya followed the advance of al-Shaabab, a jihadist offshoot of the ICU, in southern and central Somalia (BBC News, 2 January 2024). The TFG transition process ended in September 2012 after clan elders appointed a new parliament of 275 members, who subsequently elected a new president (European Parliament, 9 January 2013, pp. 2-3). In 2012, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud prevailed over Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed in the first presidential election on Somali soil since 1967 (VOA, 29 July 2015; VOA, 8 February 2017; BBC News, 2 January 2024).

Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed "Farmajo" was president between 2017 and 2022 and Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was re-elected to office in May 2022 (BBC News, 2 January 2024; UN Security Council, 1 September 2022, pp. 1-2). The Somali parliament consists of 54 members of the upper house and 275 members of the lower house (CIA, 4 June 2025). The majority population of the country is made up of ethnic Somalis, who are divided into nomadic, cattle-breeding Somalis and largely sedentary, agricultural, cattle-breeding Somalis. In addition to this ethnically homogeneous group, there are the minority groups known as Sab, the ethnic Bantu groups and groups of Arab descent. The segmentary clan system is particularly important for the group of nomadic, cattle-breeding Somalis (Gundel, November 2006, p. 4).

2. Political situation in the federal constituent states of Puntland, Jubbaland, Southwest, Galmudug and Hirshabelle and in the "Republic of Somaliland"

An overview map of the federal states can be found here (ISPI, 11 May 2021).

The Somali provisional constitution of 2012 provides, among other things, for a federal structure (CIA, 4 June 2025). In addition to Somaliland and Puntland, four other constituent states were created (Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubbaland and Southwest) (Balthasar, 11 February 2025). Elections at district and constituent state level are to be held in June and September 2025 (UN Security Council, 28 March 2025, p. 1; Radio Dalsan, 31 October 2024) and presidential elections at national level in 2026 (Anadolu Ajansı, 13 April 2025).

2.1. Puntland

In 2012, the Constituent Assembly in Puntland adopted a constitution (USDOS, 13 March 2019, Section 3). Said Abdullahi Deni has been the President of Puntland since January 2019 (UNSOM, 9 January 2019). In January 2024, the 66 members of the Puntland Assembly were elected on the basis of a clan-based system. On 8 January 2024, the 66 members re-elected Said Abdullahi Deni as President (UN Security Council, 2 February 2024, p. 2). The inauguration ceremony was attended by Somali President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and the heads of state of the federal constituent states, with the exception of Jubbaland (UN Security Council, 3 June 2024, p. 2). In March 2024, Puntland announced that it had withdrawn from the country's federal system and would govern itself independently until a national referendum on constitutional amendments was held (Reuters, 31 March 2024). In April 2025, Deni reiterated this position (Garowe Online, 28 April 2025).

2.2. Southwest

In 2015, the parliament of the federal state of South West ("South West State", "Koonfur Galbeed") was formed (USDOS, 13 March 2019, Section 3). On 19 December 2018, Abdiasis Mohammed "Laftagareen" was elected president by local MPs. According to the International Crisis Group (ICG), Laftagareen, a former member of parliament and minister, would not have won without the intervention of Somalia's federal government (International Crisis Group, 24 December 2018). In August 2023, the South West Parliament approved the National Consultative Council's May 2023 agreement to hold presidential and parliamentary elections in the state in November 2024 (UN Security Council, 13 October 2023, p. 2). However, no election date has yet been set (Wardheer News, 5 March 2025).

2.3. Galmudug

In 2015, the Galmudug Assembly of 89 members was sworn in by the Federal Government of Somalia. However, Ahlu Sunna Wal Jama (ASWJ), a paramilitary group, refused to recognise the election results and set up its own administration for the parts of Galmudug under its control (USDOS, 13 March 2019, Section 3). In December 2017, a peace agreement was reached between the two administrations (Somalia Newsroom, 20 January 2018), but 2019 saw further disagreements and clashes with the ASWJ (Hiiraan Online, 20 November 2021). In February 2020, Ahmed Abdi Kariye Qoorqoor was elected President of Galmudug in a vote boycotted by some leaders (The Nation, 8 February 2020). Further detailed information on the situation in Galmudug can be found in this and this report (Somali Dialogue Platform, July 2023; International Crisis Group, 25 September 2023).

2.4. Jubbaland

In 2013, the federal government and representatives of Jubbaland signed an agreement officially recognising the Jubbaland administration. Ahmed Mohamed Islam "Madobe" was elected president (USDOS, 13 March 2019, Section 3). In August 2019, Madobe was re-elected as president in Jubbaland (Al Jazeera, 22 August 2019). The election process was characterised, among other things, by tensions between the federal government and the Jubbaland administration. Central to the political conflict were differing interpretations of the Somali Provisional Constitution regarding the role of the federal government in regional electoral processes (UN Security Council, 1 November 2019, p. 23). Indirect elections to the Jubbaland Assembly and presidential elections were held in November 2024, in which Madobe was re-elected. The Somali federal government refused to recognise Madobe as president. The Banadir Regional Court issued an arrest warrant for Madobe (UN Security Council, 28 March 2025, p. 2).

2.5 Hirshabelle

In September 2017, Mohamed Abdi Waare was elected President of Hirshabelle Federal State (UNSOM, 24 October 2017). This followed the formation of the federal constituent state and the establishment of the Hirshabelle Assembly in 2016 (USDOS, 13 March 2019, Section 3). On 11 November 2020, the regional assembly elected Abdullahi Ali Hussein "Gudlawe", who belongs to the Hawiye Abgaal subclan, as president of Hirshabelle; a member of the Hawiye Hawadle subclan was elected vice president. As a result, some members of the Hawadle sub-clan spoke of election rigging, among other things, and expressed concerns about power-sharing (UN Security Council, 17 February 2021, p. 2). In February 2022, an informal agreement was reportedly reached between President Gudlawe and Hawadle leaders with a view to the Somali parliamentary elections held a few weeks later (UN Security Council, 13 May 2022, p. 2). In June 2023, Governor Ali Jeyte Osman declared the Hiiraan region independent from Hirshabelle. President Ali Abdullahi Hussein had previously removed him from office (Radio Dalsan, 12 October 2024). In March 2024, armed clashes broke out in Beledweyne between forces of "Hiraan State" and Hirshabelle, whereupon the Somali federal government initiated talks with all parties involved in Beledweyne (UN Security Council, 3 June 2024, p. 3).

2.6. Somaliland

Somaliland declared its independence in 1991 and, despite the lack of international recognition, has a functioning political system, government institutions, police forces and its own currency (BBC News, 2 January 2024).

The Somali government continues to reject Somaliland's independence and strongly condemns its unilateral attempts to negotiate important international agreements (CFR, last updated 21 January 2025). In 2023, there was repeated fighting in the Sool region, especially in the disputed capital Laascaanood, mainly between Somaliland administration forces and Dhulbahante clan militias. The Dhulbahante argue that the disputed regions of Sool and Sanaag are part of Somalia and not an independent Somaliland (UN Security Council, 2 February 2024, p. 2; HRW, 11 January 2024; UN Security Council, 13 October 2023, pp. 2-3; UN Security Council, 15 June 2023, pp. 2-3; UN Security Council, 16 February 2023, pp. 2-3). There were further clashes in the Sanaag region in 2024. In November 2024, the Somaliland Electoral Commission declared Abdirahman Mohamed Abdullahi "Irro" of the Waddani party the winner of the presidential elections in "Somaliland". The elections had been postponed twice since 2022 (UN Security Council, 28 March 2025, p. 2)

3. Armed insurgent groups

Al Shabaab remains the biggest threat to peace and security in Somalia. The group continues to prove resilient to the military operations conducted against it by the government. Al Shabaab continues to carry out complex attacks against the government and international forces as well as civilians and businessmen, including those in protected areas of Mogadishu. Al Shabaab has a solid financial base thanks to sophisticated business strategies. The group uses legal and illegal methods to generate funds for its operations. These include checkpoints, extortion of companies, forced taxation and the use of third-party companies and their accounts (UN Security Council, 28 October 2024, p. 3). Since its founding in 2015, the so-called Islamic State in Somalia (ISIL-Somalia) has actively sought to establish itself as an important wilaya (province) within the global ISIL structure (Hasan, 27 February 2025). ISIL-Somalia is particularly active in the Bari region of Puntland, where extortion and smuggling are on the rise and the group has recently received an influx of foreign fighters. ISIL-Somalia is led by a group of former Al Shabaab fighters (UN Security Council, 28 October 2024, pp. 4, 11).

4. Conflicts between and within clans

Clan identity is strongly anchored in Somali society. There are four major clans in the country, each of which has hundreds of sub-clans that are further subdivided by region (BBC, 19 April 2025). Conflicts between clans and retaliation for the death of clan members lead to an endemic cycle of violence in Somalia. Due to the proliferation of small arms, conflicts have become increasingly deadly over time. All aspects of Somali life, culture and politics revolve around clans. The main causes of conflict between clans are competition over access to land, water and grazing (HRC, 16 September 2019, p. 12). Especially in rural regions, murders within clans are often not investigated. They are considered a "private matter" or too complex to intervene (BBC, 19 April 2025).

Further information on the clan system can be found in this report available on ecoi.net. ecoi.net search results on clan conflicts can be found here.

5. Women

Somali culture restricts women to the home and the family sphere (UN Women Africa, undated). According to a report from September 2022, only 20 per cent of the members of the lower house and 26 per cent of the upper house are women (EISA, September 2022, p. 6). A list of the current members of the upper house can be found here, another with members of the lower house here. Somalia ranks fourth to last in the world in terms of gender equality, maternal and infant mortality rates are among the highest in the world and child marriage is widespread (UN Women Africa, undated). 99.2 per cent of women (aged 15-49) are affected by female genital mutilation (FGM). Gender-based violence is rarely reported due to a "culture of silence" (DNS, April 2020, p. 193, 220). Members of the government forces, militia members and uniformed forces are said to have raped women and girls. Although the authorities sometimes arrest members of the security forces accused of such assaults, impunity is the norm. Women and girls are subjected to gender-based violence, including rape, on their way to fetch water, go to the market or work in the fields. The police are reluctant to investigate and sometimes ask survivors to investigate their own cases. Some victims of rape have been forced to marry the perpetrator (USDOS, 23 April 2024, Section 6).

While al Shabaab imposes restrictions on women, it also provides a certain level of security for women and often implements Islamic family law in a way that favours women. Some women also perform services such as recruitment, fundraising, espionage or arms smuggling for al-Shabaab. However, co-operation with the group is not necessarily based on sympathy. It is often a matter of survival (International Crisis Group, 27 June 2019, pp. 1-2). ecoi.net search results on the situation of women can be found here.

6. Sources

Table of Contents

1. Brief overview

2. Political situation in the federal states of Puntland, Jubbaland, Southwest, Galmudug and Hirshabelle and in the "Republic of Somaliland"

 2.1. Puntland

 2.2. Southwest

 2.3. Galmudug

 2.4. Jubbaland

 2.5. Hirshabelle

 2.6. Somaliland

3. Armed insurgent groups

4. Conflicts between and within clans

5. Women

6. Sources

Cite as

ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation: ecoi.net: Somalia - Country Briefing, 13 June 2025
https://www.ecoi.net/en/countries/somalia/briefing/

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