Country Briefing

Area:	783,562 km²
Capital:	Ankara
Population:	83,593,483 (2023 est.)
Official language:	Turkish
Currency:	Turkish Lira (TRY)[1]

1. Brief overview

According to the 1982 constitution, Türkiye is a democratic, secular, social and constitutional republic.[2] The Turkish state is centrally organised and has no federal structure. The centre of political power is the capital Ankara. Nevertheless, local elections in the individual provinces are of particular importance.[3] The President of Türkiye is Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who has ruled the country with his Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, AKP) since 2003.[4] Initially Prime Minister, Erdoğan was elected President in August 2014 in the country's first direct presidential elections.[5] An amendment to the constitution in 2018, which followed a constitutional referendum in 2017,[6] led to a significant expansion of the president's powers.[7] Among other things, the constitutional amendment turned Türkiye into a presidential system,[8] the functions of head of state and head of government were combined[9] and other important changes were made to the political system.[10] The controversial constitutional referendum was narrowly approved by 51.3 per cent of Turkish voters at home and abroad. 48.7 per cent of Turks voted against. The constitutional amendment included a total of 18 articles, which were incorporated into the old constitution.[11] For example, the constitutional amendment allows the president to be a party member (and subsequently also party chairman) and exercise greater influence over the judiciary as well as appoint ministers, high-ranking civil servants and vice presidents. In the executive branch, the president can issue decrees with the force of law without the approval of parliament.[12] As a result, the absolute majority in parliament has become less important.[13]

Türkiye is one of the countries that has taken in the highest number of refugees worldwide. According to official figures as of August 2023, there were 3,298,817 Syrians with temporary residence status and 91,711 with permanent residence status in the country, as well as (as of May 2023) 300,720 asylum seekers from other countries (→ ecoi.net search on refugees).[14]

Türkiye was granted candidate country status by the European Council in 1999. Negotiations to join the European Union (EU) began in October 2005.[15] In autumn 2023, the German Federal Foreign Office reported that "the reforms required as part of the EU accession process" have been stalling for years. "The EU, Council of Europe and OSCE [Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe] criticise setbacks in human rights, the functioning of democratic institutions and the rule of law".[16]

Türkiye has been involved in the Syrian conflict since 2011.[17]

In 2021, under President Erdoğan, Türkiye withdrew from the Istanbul Convention, an international convention on preventing and combating violence against women, which Türkiye ratified in 2012 (→ ecoi.net search on women and girls). According to the Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), the president justified this by claiming that the convention corrupts family values, leads to an increase in the divorce rate and encourages homosexuality (→ ecoi.net search on the Istanbul Convention in the context of Türkiye). Following ratification in 2012, Law No. 6284 was passed to provide protection against domestic violence. According to IWPR, in the run-up to the 2023 elections, smaller Islamist parties called for the abolition of this law (→ ecoi.net search Law No. 6284).[18]

In early February 2023, earthquakes shook Türkiye. More than 50,000 people were killed,[19] including more than 7,000 migrants, most of whom were Syrians according to the report by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[20] The south[21] and south-east of the country (and the north-west of Syria) were affected.[22] According to the Congressional Research Service (CRS), Türkiye's ten southern provinces are home to thousands of displaced Syrians.[23] Over 100,000 people were injured and the earthquakes had a direct impact on the living conditions and daily lives of millions of people[24] and on the country's human rights[25] , political, social and economic situation[26] (→ecoi.net search on earthquakes in 2023).

2. Presidential and parliamentary elections 2023

The presidential elections held in 2023 were won by incumbent Recep Tayyip Erdoğan after a run-off election with 52.2 per cent of the vote. This was necessary as no candidate achieved the required absolute majority in the first round of voting.[27] Parliamentary elections were also held at the same time in 2023, in which the AKP received 35.62 per cent of the vote. Together with its ally Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi (MHP; Nationalist Movement Party) and other parties in the "People's Alliance" electoral alliance, the AKP achieved a total of 49.47 per cent. The largest opposition parties in Türkiye are the Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (CHP; Republican People's Party), the Yeşil Sol Parti (YSP; Green Left Party), whose electoral list also included candidates from the Halkların Demokratik Partisi (HDP; Peoples' Democratic Party), and the İyi Parti (Good Party).[28] In its annual report on Türkiye from November 2023, the European Commission writes that political diversity in Türkiye continues to be undermined by judicial attacks on opposition parties and individual members of parliament, particularly those of the HDP, on alleged terrorism charges (→ ecoi.net search on the 2023 elections).[29]

3. Gezi Park protests 2013

In the summer of 2013, the Gezi Park protests broke out and were violently suppressed.[30] The planned construction of a shopping centre on the site of the park initially sparked smaller protests, which developed into a larger protest against the disproportionate use of police force and the government of then Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (→ ecoi.net search on the Gezi Park protests). [31]

4. Coup attempt 2016

A coup attempt in 2016 was followed by mass dismissals and arrests.[32] A state of emergency was also declared,[33] which was extended several times[34] and ended in summer 2018[35] (àecoi.net search on the 2016 coup attempt). The government blamed the so-called Gülen movement for the coup attempt, in which at least 241 people died. The Gülen movement refers to the followers of the Islamic preacher Fethullah Gülen. It is referred to by the Turkish government as Fethullahçı Terör Örgütü (Fethullah Terror Organisation, FETÖ) and is banned.[36] According to the Dutch Foreign Ministry's country report of August 2023, the Gülen movement was deeply rooted in Turkish society in the past and millions of people were associated with it in one way or another (→ ecoi.net search on the Gülen movement). [37]

According to a report by several NGOs, 1,598 associations, 129 foundations and 170 media institutions, including some human rights organisations, were closed during the state of emergency by means of emergency decrees, i.e. not by court order, due to suspected links to terrorist organisations.[38] The fight against the HDP, which had already begun before the attempted coup by the government, was also intensified during the state of emergency. Many HDP politicians and former MPs were imprisoned on terrorism charges and accusations of having links to the PKK. As of January 2024, the HDP is facing a possible party ban by the Constitutional Court for alleged terrorist activities, which the HDP categorically denies[39] (→ ecoi.net search for HDP).

5. Ethnic groups

5.1 Kurds

Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Türkiye, although exact figures on the size of the population do not exist. Estimates range between 18 and 25 per cent. Traditionally, Kurds in Türkiye are located in the south-eastern and eastern parts of the country, but there are now larger Kurdish populations in cities such as Adana, Ankara, Antalya, Bursa, Istanbul, Izmir, Kocaeli and Mersin.[40] Politically, most Kurds support the HDP, according to the Dutch Foreign Ministry's report, but the AKP has also managed to secure Kurdish support (→ ecoi.net search on Kurds).[41] While Erdoğan made concessions to the Kurds at the beginning of his time in government, for example through reforms to linguistic and cultural rights and a rapprochement with the then newly founded HDP as well as peace talks with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), his course changed after this failed to win him more Kurdish votes. After the HDP received 13 per cent of the vote in the 2015 elections, the conflict between the PKK and Türkiye continued and the HDP was fought by the government. [42]

5.2 Minorities of Rom, Dom, Lom and Abdal

According to studies by Minority Rights Group International (MRGI), the number of Roma and members of similar groups in Türkiye was between 2 and 5 million as of June 2018, although there are no exact figures.[43] Members of the Roma minority often live in poor conditions.[44] The earthquakes in February 2023 made living conditions and access to livelihoods, healthcare and basic services even more difficult for the Roma population living in the earthquake areas. After the earthquakes, members of the Roma were among the vulnerable groups who had more difficult access to relief supplies.[45] In January 2023, Türkiye adopted a new Roma strategy (using the term Roma as an umbrella term for different groups), which is to be implemented by 2030[46] (→ ecoi.net search for members of the Roma, Dom, Lom and Abdal).

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Footnotes

[1] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Fact Book - Turkey (Türkiye), last updated 13 December 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/Türkiye-turkiye/

[2] AA -Foreign Office, Germany: PortraitTürkei: Politisches Porträt, 11 October 2023, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/service/laender/tuerkei-node/politisches-portraet/202096

[3] bpb - Federal Agency for Civic Education: Türkei - Politik, undated, https://www.bpb.de/themen/europa/tuerkei/175312/politik/

[4]Köse, Yavuz: Von der Demokratisierung zur elektoralen Autokratie, Rudolphina (University of Vienna; ed.), 7 June 2023, https://rudolphina.univie.ac.at/tuerkei-von-der-demokratie-zur-elektoralen-autokratie; Deutschlandfunk: 20 Jahre AKP-Regierung - vom demokratischen Aufbruch zur Autokratie, 31 October 2022, https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/tuerkei-20-jahre-akp-regierung-erdogan-100.html

[5] Freedom House: Freedom on the Net 2014 - Turkey, 4 December 2014, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1248193/4232_1417775083_Türkiye.pdf, p. 2

[6] ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen: TürkiyeDas Präsidialsystem der Türkei [video, minute 00:37-00:56], 5 May 2023, https://www.zdf.de/nachrichten/heute/videos/grafikvideo-praesidialsystem-tuerkei-100.html

[7] AA -Foreign Office, Germany: Turkey: Political Portrait, 11 October 2023, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/service/laender/tuerkei-node/politisches-portraet/202096; Phoenix: From Republic to Presidential System, undated, https://www.phoenix.de/von-der-republik-zum-prae-a-249380.html

[8] SZ - Süddeutsche Zeitung: Was das neue Präsidialsystem für Veränderungen bringt, 22 June 2018, https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/wahlen-in-der-tuerkei-was-das-neue-praesidialsystem-fuer-veraenderungen-bringt-1.4023748; see also Seufert, Günter: Gegen den Strich: Erdoğan und die Türkei, Internationale Politik (ed.), 27 February 2023, https://internationalepolitik.de/de/gegen-den-strich-erdogan-und-die-tuerkei; Deutschlandfunk: 20 Jahre AKP-Regierung - vom demokratischen Aufbruch zur Autokratie, 31 October 2022, https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/tuerkei-20-jahre-akp-regierung-erdogan-100.html

[9] ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen: Das Präsidialsystem der Türkei [video, minute 00:57-01:01], 5 May 2023, https://www.zdf.de/nachrichten/heute/videos/grafikvideo-praesidialsystem-tuerkei-100.html

[10] SZ - Süddeutsche Zeitung: What changes the new presidential system will bring, 22 June 2018, https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/wahlen-in-der-tuerkei-was-das-neue-praesidialsystem-fuer-veraenderungen-bringt-1.4023748

[11] Phoenix: From the republic to the presidential system, undated, https://www.phoenix.de/von-der-republik-zum-prae-a-249380.html

[12] SZ - Süddeutsche Zeitung: Was das neue Präsidialsystem für Veränderungen bringt, 22 June 2018, https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/wahlen-in-der-tuerkei-was-das-neue-praesidialsystem-fuer-veraenderungen-bringt-1.4023748; see also Phoenix: Von der Republik zum Präsidialsystem, undated, https://www.phoenix.de/von-der-republik-zum-prae-a-249380.html

[13] Phoenix: Von der Republik zum Präsidialsystem, undated, https://www.phoenix.de/von-der-republik-zum-prae-a-249380.html

[14] European Commission: Türkiye 2023 Report [SWD(2023) 696 final], 8 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101220/SWD_2023_696+T%C3%BCrkiye+report.pdf, p. 20

[15] European Commission: Türkiye 2023 Report [SWD(2023) 696 final], 8 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101220/SWD_2023_696+T%C3%BCrkiye+report.pdf, p. 3

[16] AA - Federal Foreign Office, Germany: Türkei: Politisches Porträt, 11 October 2023, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/service/laender/tuerkei-node/politisches-portraet/202096

[17] CRS - Congressional Research Service: Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, 10 August 2023, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44000.pdf, p. 19

[18] IWPR - Institute for War and Peace Reporting: Erdogan's New Islamist Allies Raise Fears Over Domestic Violence Protections, 17 November 2023, https://iwpr.net/global-voices/erdogans-new-islamist-allies-raise-fears-over-domestic-violence-protections

[19] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 11; CRS - Congressional Research Service: Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, 10 August 2023, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44000.pdf, p. 3; ARTICLE 19: Turkey: Access to information must be embedded in the earthquake response, 3 April 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2090065.html

[20] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 11

[21] CRS - Congressional Research Service: Türkiye (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, 10 August 2023, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44000.pdf, p. 3

[22] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 11

[23] CRS - Congressional Research Service: Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, 10 August 2023, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44000.pdf, p. 4

[24] CRS - Congressional Research Service: Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, 10 August 2023, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44000.pdf, p. 3

[25] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 12

[26] CRS - Congressional Research Service: (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, 10 August 2023, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44000.pdf, p. 4

[27] AA -Foreign Office, Germany: Turkey: Politisches Porträt, 11 October 2023, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/service/laender/tuerkei-node/politisches-portraet/202096; Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 12

[28] AA -Foreign Office, Germany: Türkei: Politisches Porträt, 11 October 2023, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/service/laender/tuerkei-node/politisches-portraet/202096

[29] European Commission: Türkiye 2023 Report [SWD(2023) 696 final], 8 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101220/SWD_2023_696+T%C3%BCrkiye+report.pdf, p. 14

[30] Deutschlandfunk: 20 Jahre AKP-Regierung - vom demokratischen Aufbruch zur Autokratie, 31 October 2022, https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/tuerkei-20-jahre-akp-regierung-erdogan-100.html; Freedom House: Freedom on the Net 2014 - Turkey, 4 December 2014, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1248193/4232_1417775083_turkey.pdf

[31] Freedom House: Freedom on the Net 2014 - Turkey, 4 December 2014, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1248193/4232_1417775083_turkey.pdf, p. 2

[32] ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen: Das Präsidialsystem der Türkei [video, minute 00:21-00:31], 5 May 2023, https://www.zdf.de/nachrichten/heute/videos/grafikvideo-praesidialsystem-tuerkei-100.html

[33] Deutschlandfunk: 20 Jahre AKP-Regierung – vom demokratischen Aufbruch zur Autokratie, 31 October 2022, https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/tuerkei-20-jahre-akp-regierung-erdogan-100.html

[34] SZ - Süddeutsche Zeitung: Was das neue Präsidialsystem für Veränderungen bringt, 22 June 2018, https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/wahlen-in-der-tuerkei-was-das-neue-praesidialsystem-fuer-veraenderungen-bringt-1.4023748

[35] FAZ - Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: Ausnahmezustand in der Türkei beendet, 19 July 2018, https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/ausnahmezustand-in-der-tuerkei-endet-nach-zwei-jahren-15698123.html; Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 41

[36] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 41

[37] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 42

[38] FIDH - International Federation for Human Rights, OMCT - World Organisation Against Torture, HRFT - Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, The Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders: "Uncertain and Eerie": Closure Cases Against Associations in Turkey, September 2023, https://www.omct.org/site-resources/files/TurquieOBS2023-ENG.pdf, p. 8

[39] ACLED - Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project: Turkey's 2023 General Elections and the Kurdish Question, 8 May 2023, https://acleddata.com/2023/05/08/turkeys-2023-general-elections-and-the-kurdish-question/

[40] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 47

[41] Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs: General Country of Origin Information Report on Türkiye, August 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100485/General+COI+report+Turkiye+%28August+2023%29.pdf, p. 48

[42] ACLED - Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project: Türkiye's 2023 General Elections and the Kurdish Question, 8 May 2023, https://acleddata.com/2023/05/08/Türkiyes-2023-general-elections-and-the-kurdish-question/

[43] MRGI - Minority Rights Group International: Türkiye - Roma, June 2018, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/roma-19/

[44] European Commission: Türkiye 2023 Report [SWD(2023) 696 final], 8 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101220/SWD_2023_696+T%C3%BCrkiye+report.pdf, p. 43

[45] European Commission: Türkiye 2023 Report [SWD(2023) 696 final], 8 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101220/SWD_2023_696+T%C3%BCrkiye+report.pdf, p. 43; ERRC - European Roma Rights Center: Written Comments of the European Roma Rights Centre; Submission to the OSCE-ODIHR contact point for Roma and Sinti issues concerning the 4th status report on the implementation of the OSCE action plan (11 July 2023), 11 July 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2095052/5504_file1_errc-submission-to-the-osce-odihr-contact-point-for-roma-and-sinti-11-july-2023.pdf, p. 14

[46] European Commission: Türkiye 2023 Report [SWD(2023) 696 final], 8 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2101220/SWD_2023_696+T%C3%BCrkiye+report.pdf, p. 43