Afghanistan - Country Briefing

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Country Briefing

Area: 652.230 km²
Capital: Kabul
Population: ca. 37,5 million
Official languages: Dari and Pashto [1]
Currency: Afghani (Af)[2]

1. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is a landlocked country largely characterised by the Hindu Kush mountain range in the heart of southern Central Asia.[3] It is one of the poorest countries in the world.[4] More than two thirds of the population will be dependent on humanitarian aid by the end of 2023.[5] By the end of 2023, the country is also predicted to see a further deterioration of its already dire economic situation[6] (à ecoi.net search on poverty).

For decades, the opium poppy cultivation was among the main sources of income for Afghanistan’s rural population. In April 2022, the de facto Taliban government banned opium cultivation and production. This led to a nationwide reduction in opium cultivation and opium production by 95 per cent in 2023 .[7] This has restricted access to sources of income for millions of Afghans .[8] According to the United States Institute for Peace (USIP), the opium ban will result in annual income losses of more than USD 1 billion for rural households, while there are no alternative livelihood programmes for affected farmers . [9]

Around half of Afghan men are literate, while only 16 per cent of women in rural areas and 40 per cent of women in urban areas are literate [10] ( àecoi.net search on literacy rate).

2. HISTORY[11]

The borders of present-day Afghanistan were established in the 19th century, in the conflict between Tsarist Russia and the British Empire, the so-called "Great Game".[12] In 1973, the Republic of Afghanistan was proclaimed, which succeeded a monarchical system and was replaced by the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in 1978 in a coup d'état, ushering in a communist phase.[13] In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support the communist Afghan government in its conflict with Muslim guerrillas.[14] Resistance to the Soviet forces was formed and Islam was built up as the ideological antithesis of communism.[15] By 1980, several regional groups known as mujahideen (“those who participate in jihad”) had united against the Soviet invaders and the Afghan army they supported. Mujahideen were supported financially and militarily by the USA, Pakistan, China, European and Arab states. When the Soviet troops left the country in 1989, the civil war between the Mujahideen and the communist Afghan government continued, and the latter was finally deposed in 1992, in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union and thus a lack of support. A coalition consisting mainly of the mujahideen who had previously fought the Soviet Union set up an interim government.[16] The rule of the mujahideen, who tried to monopolise their power, ended in civil war.[17] Afghanistan was de facto ruled by militia leaders and warlords and the population suffered from road taxes, extortion and kidnappings. This situation contributed to the formation of the Taliban ("religious students"[18] ) formed in autumn 1994, recruited from madrasa students in Pakistan and the Kandahar province.[19]

In 1996, the Taliban finally captured Kabul and by 2001 they had gained control of more than 90 per cent of the country. Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates formally recognised the Taliban government after the fall of Kabul, but it came under criticism for its extreme views - particularly in relation to women - and its human rights record.[20] When the Taliban did not extradite Osama Bin Laden, who was in Afghanistan and was blamed by the US for the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the US attacked the Taliban in 2001 and their resistance collapsed within days. An interim government was installed. In 2004, democratic presidential elections were held in which women also had the right to vote and from which Hamid Karzai emerged successful. Attacks and violent clashes between the US-led coalition, later NATO forces, and Taliban forces continued in the following years and civilian casualties remained high. Peace talks with the participation of the US, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan were held with the Taliban in 2018 and 2019. On the condition that the Taliban hold peace negotiations with the Afghan government and prohibit Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State from operating in Afghanistan, the USA put the withdrawal of its troops on the table in an agreement of February 2020. Despite the United States’ resumption - after a months-long delay - of its troops-withdrawal in May 2021, the negotiations between the Taliban and the central government continued to lack progress.[21] In early summer 2021, the Taliban finally conquered large parts of Afghanistan, including the capital Kabul in August 2021.[22] In September 2021, the Taliban formed an interim government with all-male members of mainly Pashtun origin.[23]

ecoi.net’s featured topic provides information on life under the renewed Taliban rule in Afghanistan:

Literature reference

The following article from the Federal Agency for Civic Education provides a good overview of Afghan history:

The online encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia Britannica provides extensive information on the history of Afghanistan from early history to the present day:

3. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS GROUPS

The largest ethnic group in Afghanistan[24] is the Pashtun (approx. 40 per cent of the Afghan population), followed by Tajik (approx. 30 per cent), Hazara (approx. 10 per cent) and Uzbek (approx. 9 per cent). In addition to these large and larger ethnic groups, there are also numerous small groups, peoples and tribes, such as Aimak, Baloch and Nuristani.[25]

(Source: DFAT, 14 January 2022)[26]

Around 98 to 99 per cent of Afghans belong to Islam[27] , of which over 80 per cent are Sunni Muslims.[28] Non-Muslim minorities such as Sikhs or Hindus have dwindled to a small proportion of their former size, as most have emigrated in recent decades,[29] there are only a few thousand[30] or even hundreds of them still living in Afghanistan[31] . Most Taliban members are ethnic Pashtuns, but they are also supported by members of other ethnic groups. [32] The new Taliban government does not represent the population of the country, it is exclusively male, almost all members of the government are Taliban and it is dominated by Pashtuns.[33]

Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan in terms of numbers, but they are not a homogeneous group but are divided into various tribes and sub-tribes. Pashtuns mainly live in the south and east of the country,[34] but also in all other regions of Afghanistan.[35] The Pashtunwali system of values and behaviour, which has been passed down orally for centuries and regulates both individual and group behaviour, is still important for Pashtuns today[36] and mixes a tribal code of honour and local interpretations of Sharia law.[37] Although the majority of Pashtuns have lived a sedentary life for centuries, aspects of their former nomadic way of life (culture of honour) can be traced back to Pashtunwali.[38] In the event of disputes or matters in the interests of the group, the tribal council is convened to resolve issues and make decisions.[39] Disputes among Pashtuns are traditionally attributed to "zar, zan and zamin" (gold, women and land), the main pillars of wealth and honour in tribal society.[40] According to this proverb, women are considered the cause of disputes and at the same time equated with property.[41] Women are shielded from all matters outside the home and are obliged to wear a full face and body covering (burqa).[42] Pashtuns have always dominated the country's political scene. [43]

After the Pashtuns, the Tajiks are the second largest ethnic group in Afghanistan[44] and live predominantly in the north and north-east of the country[45] . Most Tajiks are Dari-speaking Sunni Muslims, but a minority profess the Twelver Shia faith.[46] Tajiks are not divided into clearly demarcated tribes,[47] loyalties are based on family and village. Afghanistan was ruled by Tajiks for two short periods. [48]

Hazara are an ethnolinguistic group from the mountainous region of central Afghanistan.[49] Hazara traditionally speak a dialect of Dari called Hazaragi. The vast majority are followers of the Twelver Shia, a smaller number are Ismailis and a minority profess Sunni Islam. Before the 19th century, the Hazara formed the ethnic majority in Afghanistan[50] and until 1890 they were largely autonomous[51] . Their violent and brutal incorporation into the nascent Afghan state by predominantly Pashtun armies[52] (by 1893, according to some estimates, more than half of all Hazara were killed)[53] , laid the foundations for a lasting enmity between the Shia Hazara and the Sunni Pashtuns, on both religious and ethnic grounds. Since then, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica, they have been victims of persecution, displacement and marginalisation.[54]

Uzbeks speak a Turkic language and the vast majority are Sunni Muslims. Uzbeks and Turkmens inhabit most of the fertile land in northern Afghanistan and live mainly from agriculture. Uzbeks have tribal identities that still largely determine the structures within their respective societies. [55]

Literature reference

Minority Rights Group International (MRG) provides information on the above-mentioned and other ethnic minorities in Afghanistan:

4. WOMEN

According to the Women, Peace and Security Index[56] 2023/24, which attempts to provide information on the social status and degree of self-determination of women in countries around the world,[57] , Afghanistan ranks last out of a total of 177 countries.[58] According to the UN Human Rights Council, the large-scale, systematic violation of the fundamental rights of women and girls in Afghanistan through the policies of the Taliban after their renewed seizure of power in August 2021 constitutes persecution on the basis of gender and institutionalised gender apartheid.[59] According to the UN Secretary-General's report of February 2023, the situation of women's and girls' fundamental rights and freedoms continues to deteriorate ( àecoi.net search on women and girls). Furthermore, suicides of women and girls and incidents of violence against women and girls were reported, ranging from murder and honour killings to forced marriages and beatings resulting in injury or disability[60] ( ecoià.net search on honour killings). The US-based non-governmental organisation Freedom House reports that the Taliban put an end to the limited formal protection against domestic violence introduced during the republic ( àecoi.net search on domestic violence). Shelters for survivors of gender-based violence (GBV) were dissolved by the Taliban and some residents were reportedly detained ( àecoi.net search on gender-based violence). People convicted of gender-based violence were also released by the Taliban during their takeover. [61]

After the fall of the Taliban in 2001, several measures were taken to improve the situation of Afghan women and girls, resulting in an improvement in access to education and employment, and in political representation. However, the average education of Afghan women was still alarmingly low, at only two years ( àecoi.net search on women and education). [62] The life expectancy of women also increased significantly after the fall of the Taliban, by 10 years between 2001 and 2017.

Since coming to power again in August 2021, the Taliban have made promises regarding inclusion and women's rights ( àecoi.net search on women's rights). However, the Taliban already qualified these promises at their first press conference by stating that rights would only apply within the framework of their conservative interpretation of Sharia law.[63] A ministry for the "Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice" moved into the building of the former Ministry of Women's Affairs, with offices for the religious morality police.[64] In December 2021, the Taliban issued a decree stating that women should not be considered property and banning forced marriages in Afghanistan ( àecoi.net search on forced marriage). [65]

In January 2023, HRW wrote that since their recent takeover, the Taliban have been introducing a wide array of regulations and measures that exclude women and girls from fundamental rights such as the right to freedom of expression, movement, work and education. According to HRW, this affects practically all of their rights, including the right to life, livelihood, shelter, healthcare, food and water.[66] According to UN human rights experts, the Taliban's continuous and systematic efforts to exclude women from the social, economic and political spheres throughout the country are a cause for concern. The concerns apply particularly to women belonging to ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities such as the Hazara, Tajik, Hindu and other communities that are recognisable as such and therefore even more vulnerable.[67]

ecoi.net’s featured topic provides detailed and regularly updated information on decisions taken under the new Taliban rule concerning women and girls as well as on the situation of women in Afghanistan in general:

Literature reference

In a country report, the German Federal Office for Migration and Refugees looks at the situation of women in Afghanistan in the period 1996 - 2023:

5. HUMANITARIAN SITUATION

After 40 years of war, the humanitarian situation before the Taliban took power again in August 2021 was characterised by increasing hunger, economic decline, price increases for food and other essential goods and rising poverty.[68] While the country continues to suffer the consequences of the long-standing conflict and recurring natural disasters, a new period characterised by rapid economic decline, famine and the risk of malnutrition, rising inflation, an increase in both urban and rural poverty and a near collapse of the national health system began after the Taliban's renewed takeover. [69]

Before the Taliban took power, foreign donors paid for up to 80 per cent of all Afghan government spending. Afterwards, these funds were all frozen[70] or redirected to humanitarian aid.[71] In 2023, two-thirds of the Afghan population, or 28.3 million people, were in urgent need of humanitarian assistance to survive in the circumstances mentioned above, facing the third consecutive year of drought and the second year of severe economic decline.[72] The United Nations World Food Programme reported in November 2023 that 89 per cent of all Afghans do not have sufficient food supplies [73] ( àecoi.net search on food insecurity in Afghanistan).

In November 2023, the Secretary-General of the United Nations reported a sharp increase in cases of denial of humanitarian access. In the 2021 to 2022 reporting period, a total of 749 such cases were documented, of which 722 were attributed to the Taliban, compared to 46 such cases in the previous reporting period. According to the report, the increase is due to the implementation of Taliban regulations restricting humanitarian operations ( àecoi.net search on humanitarian aid).[74]

Literature reference

Chapter 3 of a report published by the European Asylum Agency (EUAA) in December 2023 deals with the humanitarian situation in Afghanistan up to and including September 2023:

A report published in November 2023 by CARE International and other organisations deals with the humanitarian situation in Afghanistan with a focus on women:

6. RETURNEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS

It is estimated that there are between 3.25 million[75] and 6.6 million people in Afghanistan who have become internally displaced[76] . In October 2021, IPC cited protracted conflicts, the poor security situation, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and natural disasters such as droughts, floods and earthquakes as the causes of this.[77] According to a UN publication, around 88 per cent of internally displaced people in Afghanistan in 2022 cited armed conflict as the main cause of their displacement. In addition to natural and man-made disasters, generalised violence, human rights violations, forced evacuations and other reasons were also cited.[78]

In a survey conducted in 2021, 40 per cent of the IDP households surveyed reported insecure tenure in their current accommodation. For example, they had no or only a verbal tenancy agreement and were constantly at risk of possible eviction.[79] Data from 2021 shows that around 58 per cent of IDPs are children, while the remaining 42 per cent are half men and half women[80] ( àecoi.net search on IDPs).

Since 2012, an estimated 6.5 million Afghans have returned to Afghanistan from abroad. Around 1.7 million people returned to Afghanistan in 2021 (923,000) and 2022 (761,000) from Pakistan (27 per cent), Iran (60 per cent), European countries and Turkey (11 per cent in total) and other countries (2 per cent).[81]

Before 2021, more than 2 million Afghan refugees were registered in neighbouring countries such as Pakistan and Iran, of which more than 64% were in Pakistan and 35% in Iran.[82] In October 2023, the Pakistani government announced a return plan for "illegal aliens"[83] According to UNHCR, there are indications that most Afghans decided to leave Pakistan after this announcement. But repatriations have also been documented. The increase in returnee numbers put pressure on already limited resources, including shelter and basic services. While in the first week of November 2023, the daily number of returnees from Pakistan was 18,200, it has subsequently fallen to 600 people per day as of January 2024. The total number of returnees to Afghanistan between 15 September 2023 and 18 January 2024 was 502,100.[84] As of 14 December 2023, 661,000 Afghans had been repatriated from Iran to Afghanistan in 2023, according to UNHCR.[85] According to the UNHCR, a total of more than 1.46 million internally displaced persons returned to their places of origin between 2021 and 2023[86] ( àecoi.net search on returnees).

7. New takeover by the Taliban in 2021

In the first months of 2021, an unprecedented number of civilians were killed and injured in Afghanistan, and at least 560,000 people were displaced.[87] Various sources documented serious human rights violations by the Taliban during their advance, including summary executions and retaliatory killings of civilians and government employees.[88]

With the Taliban's increasing territorial control over Afghanistan in August 2021, conflict-related security incidents dropped significantly,[89] with the United Nations recording a 91 per cent decrease in security incidents between August and December 2021 compared to the previous year[90] . At the same time, there was an increase in attacks by the Islamic State in Khorasan Province (ISKP), which increased in both frequency and geographical scope in 2021 compared to the previous year.[91]

Several sources reported in September 2021 that the Taliban were increasingly violently suppressing peaceful demonstrations in various provinces of Afghanistan,[92] using live ammunition, batons and whips, among other things.[93] Several people were killed and injured in the process.[94] The OHCHR reported a Taliban directive banning unauthorised gatherings in early September 2021.[95] Various sources also reported systematic intimidation, abuse and censorship of journalists by the Taliban in 2021.[96]

Despite the Taliban's announcement of a general amnesty for former government employees and former members of the security forces, and despite assurances from the Taliban leadership that they would hold their troops accountable for violations of the amnesty,[97] various sources reported human rights violations in October and November 2021, including unlawful killings[98] , summary executions and enforced disappearances[99] as well as abuses of people who had "collaborated with foreigners".[100]

The Taliban takeover also led to the collapse of the Afghan legal system and created a climate of impunity. According to a FIDH report, as of November 2021, the national courts were no longer functioning, the police and prosecution authorities were inactive and former judges and prosecutors lived in fear of revenge.[101]

Literature reference

ecoi.net’s featured topic provides information on current developments in Afghanistan since the Taliban took power again:

8. Key actors

a. Taliban

According to Afghanistan expert Thomas Ruttig, the structure of the Taliban has a vertical, horizontal and centralist dimension. The centralised dimension is represented by the position of the Amir ul-Muminin, who can make far-reaching decisions single-handedly and revoke any decision made by the hierarchical levels below him without any other authority being able to oppose him. The Amir ul-Muminin is appointed for life; there is no direct succession mechanism. The successor is appointed by a kind of consensus decision of the Taliban leadership.[102] Hibatullah Achundsada, one of the deputies of the previous leader Akhtar Mohammad Mansour, was appointed as the new Taliban leader in 2016.[103]

According to Thomas Ruttig, there is rivalry for positions and power between two large regional networks within the Taliban movement. The largest network is the Kandahari Taliban from southern Afghanistan, the region from which the Taliban historically originated and from which the Amir ul-Muminin Hibatullah Achundsada hails. According to Ruttig, the Kandahari Taliban are by far the most numerous. The second network is the Haqqani network, which is assigned to the south-east of the country and is much smaller. The leader of the network is Siradschuddin Haqqani, one of the three deputy Taliban leaders. The other two Taliban leaders, Mulla Yaqub and Mulla Abdul Ghani (Baradar), are Kandaharis. According to some sources, the Haqqani network had greatly increased its influence in the period before the new takeover, while the Kandahari Taliban are currently consolidating their power and expanding it at the expense of the Haqqanis, according to Ruttig. [104]

Despite increasing internal tensions and differences of opinion[105] , the Taliban emphasise their unity and the authority of their leader Hibatullah Achundsada.[106] The internal tensions mainly run along a dividing line between hardliners and moderates. The moderates include long-standing Taliban members who believe that relations with foreign partners must at least be kept functional and that Afghanistan must be integrated into the international system, particularly the global financial system. The hardliners take a more ideological approach and focus less on international relations.[107] Achundsada has so far withstood pressure to take a more moderate line. There were reportedly no signs that other Taliban leaders based in Kabul could have a lasting impact on governance. According to the UN Security Council, there was little prospect of change in the medium and short term. [108]

Literature reference

Detailed information on the structures and various factions within the Taliban can be found in the report on the COI webinar with Katja Mielke and Emran Feroz:

A conference report by the Danish Refugee Council (DRC) from December 2022 also contains information on the structures of the Taliban, among other topics:

b. Haqqani network

In September 2021, the BBC described the Haqqani Network (HQN) as a militant group linked to the Taliban and responsible for some of the deadliest attacks in the country's war between 2001 and 2021. Unlike the Taliban, the Haqqani Network has been classified as a foreign terrorist organisation by the US. [109]

The Haqqani Network (HQN) emerged in the late 1980s, around the time of the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan. The founder of the HQN, Jalaluddin Haqqani, established relations with Osama Bin Laden in the mid-1980s and joined the Taliban in 1995. After the fall of the Taliban in 2001, Haqqani retreated to Pakistan, from where the HQN continued to plan and carry out terrorist operations in Afghanistan under the leadership of his son Sirajuddin. In 2015, Sirajuddin Haqqani was appointed deputy head of the Taliban. [110]

Since the Taliban took power in Afghanistan in August 2021, the HQN has occupied important posts within the de facto Taliban government,[111] Sirajuddin Haqqani became the Taliban's Minister of Interior.[112] HQN controls key areas such as the home affairs, intelligence, passports and migration and, as of May 2022, much of the security in Afghanistan, including in the capital Kabul.[113] USDOS noted in 2023 that the HQN is believed to comprise around 3,000 to 5,000 fighters operating in Afghanistan and Pakistan.[114] The Haqqani network reportedly maintains close links with Al-Qaeda[115] and the Pakistani Taliban (Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan, TTP). [116]

c. Al-Qaeda

According to the UN Security Council, the Taliban and Al-Qaeda maintain close relations even after the Taliban's renewed takeover of power. Security Council member states estimate that Al-Qaeda has been granted a safe haven under the Taliban and has greater room for manoeuvre.[117] As reported in July 2023, Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan operates largely underground to support the Taliban's narrative that they are abiding by agreements not to make Afghan territory available for terrorist purposes. Under the auspices of senior Taliban leaders, Al-Qaeda members infiltrated legal institutions and government agencies, thus ensuring the nationwide expansion of Al-Qaeda cells. The core of Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan remained stable with 30 to 60 members, while the total number of Al-Qaeda fighters in Afghanistan is estimated at around 400.[118]

d. Islamic State in Khorasan Province (ISKP)

The Islamic State in Khorasan Province (ISKP) group, an offshoot of the Islamic State group that has been active in Afghanistan since mid-2014,[119] is the main Taliban antagonist[120] and the greatest terrorist threat in Afghanistan and the wider region.[121] The group is mainly made up of former members of the Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan, the Afghan Taliban and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan. For 2022, the USDOS estimated the group's strength at around 2,000 fighters.[122]

The ISKP's attacks against both the Taliban and international targets became increasingly sophisticated. The group's strategy was to conduct public attacks in particular to undermine the Taliban's ability to provide security. In general, ISKP attacks indicated strong operational capabilities.[123] ISKP poses a particular threat to certain population groups, such as Hazaras. Around 2015, the ISKP began attacking mosques, hospitals, schools and other civilian facilities, particularly in Shia neighbourhoods. In the past, the ISKP has also attacked journalists, civil society activists, health workers and, in particular, girls' schools.[124]

e. Resistance groups

According to Ahmad Massoud, the leader of the National Resistance Front (NRF), the NRF, the largest resistance group operating primarily in north-east Afghanistan,[125] has over 4,000 fighters as of September 2023, who are mainly engaged in guerrilla warfare. [126]

In autumn 2022, several sources reported that new armed anti-Taliban groups had formed alongside the NRF ,[127] although their size and operational capacities are difficult to assess.[128] Most of the non-Salafist anti-Taliban groups are small, fledgling organisations with limited ability to conduct sustained military operations in Afghanistan. The precarious information situation in Taliban-ruled Afghanistan also makes it difficult to verify suspected attacks by smaller anti-Taliban groups.[129]

Footnotes

[1] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Afghanistan, last updated 17 January 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/#geography; Encyclopaedia Britannica gives slightly different figures for Afghanistan's area (652,864 km2 ) and population (approx. 34.9 million). See Encyclopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - Facts & Stats, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/facts/Afghanistan

[2] Encylopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - Facts & Stats, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/facts/Afghanistan

[3] Encylopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - Country, Afghanistan - Introduction & Quick Facts, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan

[4] UNDP - United Nations Development Programme, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-05/SEO%202023_full%20report.pdf, p. 12; World Bank, Gross national income per capita 2022, Atlas method and PPP, 1 July 2023, https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/GNIPC.pdf, pp. 3-4

[5] UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/78/628-S/2023/941], 1 December 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067517/A_76_667--S_2022_64-EN.pdf, p. 10

[6] USIP - United States Institute for Peace: Afghanistan's Economy Once Again Nears the Precipice, 17 November 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/11/afghanistans-economy-once-again-nears-precipice

[7] UNODC - UN Office on Drugs and Crime: Afghanistan opium survey 2023, November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2100824/Afghanistan_opium_survey_2023.pdf, pp. 3-4

[8] ACAPS: ACAPS Briefing Note: Afghanistan-Pakistan Forced return of Afghans from Pakistan (07 December 2023), 7 December 2023, https://reliefweb.int/attachments/5ea63d2d-0a7e-42b5-a598-916eeffa8156/20231207_ACAPS_Briefing_note_Afghanistan_Pakistan_forced_return_of_Afghans_from_Pakistan.pdf, p. 6

[9] USIP - United States Institute for Peace: Afghanistan's Economy Once Again Nears the Precipice, 17 November 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/11/afghanistans-economy-once-again-nears-precipice

[10] UN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), January 2023, https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf, p. 42

[11] The historical overview is mainly based on information from the universal encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia Britannica.

[12] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - Introduction & Quick Facts, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan

[13] Encylopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - History, Afghanistan since 1973, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Mohammad-Zahir-Shah-1933-73#ref21410

[14] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, last updated 25 December 2023, https://www.britannica.com/event/Soviet-invasion-of-Afghanistan

[15] FES - Friedrich Ebert Stiftung: Afghanistan zwischen Chaos und Machtpolitik, April 1998, https://www.fes.de/ipg/ipg2_98/artschetter.html

[16] Encylopaedia Britannica, Afghanistan - History, Afghanistan since 1973, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Mohammad-Zahir-Shah-1933-73#ref21410

[17] BpB - Federal Agency for Civic Education: Afghanistan, 27 January 2022, https://www.bpb.de/themen/kriege-konflikte/innerstaatliche-konflikte/155323/afghanistan/#node-content-title-3

[18] BpB - Federal Agency for Civic Education: Auch. Wir. Dienten. Deutschland. - Über die Zusammenarbeit mit afghanischen Ortskräften während des ISAF-Einsatzes, 2018, https://www.bpb.de/system/files/dokument_pdf/10298_Wir_dienten_Deutschland_Leseprobe.pdf, p. 21

[19] Encylopaedia Britannica, Afghanistan - History, Afghanistan since 1973, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Civil-war-mujahideen-Taliban-phase-1992-2001

[20] Encylopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - History, Afghanistan since 1973, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Civil-war-mujahideen-Taliban-phase-1992-2001

[21] Encylopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - History, Struggle for democracy, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Struggle-for-democracy

[22] SWP - German Institute for International and Security Affairs: Zentralasiens Muslime und die Taliban, February 2022, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/aktuell/2022A15_Zentralasien_MuslimeTaliban.pdf

[23] AP - Associated Press: Taliban form all-male Afghan government of old guard members, 8 September 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-pakistan-afghanistan-arrests-islamabad-d50b1b490d27d32eb20cc11b77c12c87

[24] Reliable information on the proportion of ethnic groups in the total population cannot be provided for Afghanistan, as the last partial census was carried out in 1979. Encyclopedia Britannica, Afghanistan, People, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Plant-and-animal-life#ref21423

[25] Encyclopedia Britannica: Afghanistan, People, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Plant-and-animal-life#ref21423

[26] DFAT - Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Thematic Report on Political and Security Developments in Afghanistan (August 2021 to January 2022), 14 January 2022,

https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067344/country-information-report-afghanistan.pdf, P. 1

[27] Political Handbook of the World, 2018-2019, SAGE Publications (edited by Tom Lansford), 2019 (Kindle edition), p. 3; MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan - Communities, last updated December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/country/afghanistan/

[28] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - People, Religion, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Languages#ref21425

[29] Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2021 - Afghanistan, 4 March 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2068626.html

[30] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Afghanistan - People, Religion, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Languages

[31] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan - Communities, last updated December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/country/afghanistan/

[32] Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2022 - Afghanistan, 28 February 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2068625.html, Section B4

[33] AAN - Afghanistan Analysts Network: Afghanistan's conflict in 2021 (2): Republic collapse and Taleban victory in the long-view of history, 12 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2066639.html

[34] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Pashtuns in Afghanistan, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pashtuns/

[35] Encyclopedia Britannica, Afghanistan, People, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Plant-and-animal-life#ref21423

[36] Rzehak, Lutz: Doing Pashto, Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns, AAN (ed.), March 2011, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/10/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf, S. 1

[37] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Pashtuns in Afghanistan, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pashtuns/

[38] Rzehak, Lutz: Doing Pashto, Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns, AAN (ed.), March 2011, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/10/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf, S. 1

[39] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Pashtuns in Afghanistan, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pashtuns/Rzehak, Lutz: Doing Pashto, Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns, AAN (ed.), March 2011, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/10/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf, S. 13-14

[40] USIP - United States Institute of Peace: The Clash of Two Goods, State and Non-State Dispute Resolution in Afghanistan, November 2006, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/clash_two_goods.pdf, S. 8

[41] Shoro, Shahnaz: Honour Killing in the Second Decade of the 21st Century, 2017, S. 43

[42] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Pashtuns in Afghanistan, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pashtuns/

[43] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan, Communities, last updated December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/country/afghanistan/

[44] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan, Tajiks, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/tajiks/

[45] MRG - Minority Rights International: Afghanistan, Communities, last updated December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/country/afghanistan/

[46] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan, Tajiks, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/tajiks/

[47] Encyclopaedia Britannica, Afghanistan - People, last updated 22 January 2024, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan

[48] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan, Tajiks, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/tajiks/

[49] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Hazara, last updated 21 December 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hazara

[50] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Hazaras in Afghanistan, last updated December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras/

[51] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Hazara, last updated 21 December 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hazara

[52] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Hazara, last updated 21 December 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hazara

[53] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Hazaras in Afghanistan, last updated December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras/

[54] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Hazara, last updated 21 December 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hazara

[55] MRG - Minority Rights Group International: Afghanistan, Uzbeks and Turkmens in Afghanistan, undated, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/uzbeks-and-turkmens/

[56] The Women, Peace and Security Index is calculated annually by Georgetown University's Institute for Women, Peace and Security. This index evaluates countries on the basis of indicators that are intended to measure the equality and autonomy of women, for example on the level of education, financial independence, political representation, legal discrimination or violence by partners. (GIWPS - Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security: Women Peace and Security Index 2023/24, https://giwps.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/WPS-Index-full-report.pdf, S. 16)

[57] GIWPS - Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security: Women Peace and Security Index 2023/24, https://giwps.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/WPS-Index-full-report.pdf, S. 1

[58] GIWPS - Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security: Women Peace and Security Index 2023/24, https://giwps.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/WPS-Index-full-report.pdf, p. i

[59] UN HRC - UN Human Rights Council: Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls [A/HRC/53/21], 15 June 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2093577.html, S. 17-18

[60] UNGA - UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/77/636-S/2022/916], 27 February 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2088888.html, pp. 9-10

[61] Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2022 - Afghanistan, 28 February 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2068625.html, Section G3

[62] GIWPS - Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security: Women Peace and Security Index 2021/22, https://giwps.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/WPS-Index-2021.pdf, S. 62

[63] DFAT - Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Thematic Report on Political and Security Developments in Afghanistan (August 2021 to January 2022), 14 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067344/country-information-report-afghanistan.pdf, p. 14-15

[64] The New York Times: Taliban Seize Women's Ministry Building for Use by Religious Police, 17 September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/taliban-women-ministry-religious-police.html

[65] DFAT - Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Thematic Report on Political and Security Developments in Afghanistan (August 2021 to January 2022), 14 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067344/country-information-report-afghanistan.pdf, p. 15

[66] HRW - Human Rights Watch: World Report 2023 - Afghanistan, 12 January 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2085369.html; see also: Mirzada, Rama and Shapour, Roxanna: Strangers in Our Own Country: How Afghan women cope with life under the Islamic Emirate, 28 December 2022, AAN (ed.), https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2085567.html

[67] OHCHR - UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Afghanistan: Taliban attempting to steadily erase women and girls from public life - UN experts, 17 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2066758.html

[68] UN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2022, 7 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2066646/afghanistan-humanitarian-needs-overview-2022.pdf, p. 13

[69] UN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), January 2023, https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf, p. 6

[70] The Washington Post: As Afghanistan's economy collapses, international community looks for innovative ways to avoid humanitarian disaster, 28 November 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/afghanistan-humanitarian-disaster-aid/2021/11/27/5d2f859a-4ee4-11ec-a1b9-9f12bd39487a_story.htmlUN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), January 2023, https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf, S. 6

[71] DFAT - Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Thematic Report on Political and Security Developments in Afghanistan (August 2021 to January 2022), 14 January 2022

https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067344/country-information-report-afghanistan.pdf, p. 8

[72] UN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), January 2023, https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf, p. 6

[73] WFP - World Food Programme: Afghanistan - Food Security Update, 3rd Quarter September 2023, 22 November 2023, https://reliefweb.int/attachments/a88e0c1e-a0ca-458f-b8a4-3bf7d5b1afb2/WFP-0000154406.pdf, p. 8

[74] UN Security Council: Children and armed conflict in Afghanistan, Report of the Secretary-General, 21 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2102858/N2336625.pdf, S. 10

[75] UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: UNHCR Regional Bureau for Asia and Pacific (RBAP); External Update: Afghanistan Situation #31; As of 1 January 2024, 22 January 2024, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2103523/UNHCR+Afghanistan+Situation+Emergency+Update+%28as+of+1+January+2024%29.pdf, p. 1

[76] IOM - International Organisation for Migration: Baseline Mobility Assessment, June 2023, https://dtm.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1461/files/reports/IOM-DTM-AFG_Baseline%20Mobility%20Assessment_Round%2016_1.pdf, S. 5

[77] IPC - Integrated Food Security Phase Classification: Afghanistan, IPC Acute Insecurity Analysis (September 2021 - March 2022), October 2021, https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC_Afghanistan_AcuteFoodInsec_2021Oct2022Mar_report.pdf, S. 9

[78] UN Women - UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women) & UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Afghanistan Crisis Update; Women and Girls in Displacement, 25 March 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2092279/Afghanistan+crisis+update+-+Women+and+Girls+in+displacement+UNHCR-UNWomen+May+2023+Factsheet+3.pdf, p. 3

[79] UN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2022, 7 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2066646/afghanistan-humanitarian-needs-overview-2022.pdf, p. 14; see also UN OCHA - UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (available on reliefweb), https://reliefweb.int/attachments/2f525ec0-622e-47ee-bb0b-d411323dc054/AFG-HNO-2023-v06.pdf, pp. 37-38

[80] UN Women - UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women & UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Afghanistan Crisis Update; Women and Girls in Displacement, 1 March 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2068691/Afghanistan_factsheet.pdf, p. 3

[81] IOM - International Organisation for Migration: Baseline Mobility Assessment, June 2023, https://dtm.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1461/files/reports/IOM-DTM-AFG_Baseline%20Mobility%20Assessment_Round%2016_1.pdf, S. 17

[82] UN Women - UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women & UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Afghanistan Crisis Update; Women and Girls in Displacement, 1 March 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2068691/Afghanistan_factsheet.pdf, p. 2

[83] The Pakistani government originally announced that holders of the Afghan Citizen Card (ACC) and the Proof of Registration Card (PoR) would be exempt. UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Emergency Update #9: Pakistan - Afghanistan Returns Response; As of 18 January 2024, 22 January 2024, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/106220, p. 1, footnote 1

[84] UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Emergency Update #9: Pakistan - Afghanistan Returns Response; As of 18 January 2024, 22 January 2024, https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/106220, S. 1

[85] UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: UNHCR Regional Bureau for Asia and Pacific (RBAP); External Update: Afghanistan Situation #31; As of 1 January 2024, 22 January 2024,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2103523/UNHCR+Afghanistan+Situation+Emergency+Update+%28as+of+1+January+2024%29.pdf, p. 3

[86] UNHCR - UN High Commissioner for Refugees: UNHCR Regional Bureau for Asia and Pacific (RBAP); External Update: Afghanistan Situation #31; As of 1 January 2024, 22 January 2024, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2103523/UNHCR+Afghanistan+Situation+Emergency+Update+%28as+of+1+January+2024%29.pdf p. 2

[87] International Crisis Group: Afghanistan’s Growing Humanitarian Crisis, 2 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2059728.html

[88] HRW - Human Rights Watch: Afghanistan: Advancing Taliban Execute Detainees, 3 August 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2057442.html, AIHRC - Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission: Violations of International Humanitarian Law in Spin Boldak District of Kandahar Province, 31 July 2021, https://www.aihrc.org.af/home/thematic-reports/91121

[89] UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/76/328-S/2021/759], 2 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2060189/sg_report_on_afghanistan_september_2021.pdf, p. 5-6

[90] UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/76/667-S/2022/64], 28 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067517/A_76_667--S_2022_64-EN.pdf, p. 5

[91] UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/76/667-S/2022/64], 28 January 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067517/A_76_667--S_2022_64-EN.pdf, p. 5; see also: RFE/RL - Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: Intensifying Violence Between Taliban, IS-K Heralds New War In Afghanistan, 13 October 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/taliban-islamic-state-khorasan/31507469.html

[92] UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/76/328-S/2021/759], 2 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2060189/sg_report_on_afghanistan_september_2021.pdf, p. 2; AAN - Afghanistan Analysts Network: The Taleban leadership converges on Kabul as remnants of the republic reposition themselves, 19 August 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2059279.html; AI - Amnesty International: Afghanistan: Suppression of protests at odds with Taliban's claims on human rights, 8 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2059978.html

[93] OHCHR - UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 10 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2060413.html

[94] OHCHR - UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 10 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2060413.html; UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/76/328-S/2021/759], 2 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2060189/sg_report_on_afghanistan_september_2021.pdf, p. 2; AAN - Afghanistan Analysts Network: The Taleban leadership converges on Kabul as remnants of the republic reposition themselves, 19 August 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2059279.html;AI - Amnesty International: Afghanistan: Suppression of protests at odds with Taliban's claims on human rights, 8 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2059978.html

[95] OHCHR - UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 10 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2060413.html

[96] AI - Amnesty International: Afghanistan: Suppression of protests at odds with Taliban's claims on human rights, 8 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2059978.html; RSF - Reporters Sans Frontières: Are the Taliban now showing their true face to journalists?, 10 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2060208.html; HRW - Human Rights Watch: Afghanistan: Taliban Crackdown on Media Worsens, 22 November 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2064330.html; ACLED - Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project: ACLED Regional Overview - South Asia and Afghanistan (20 - 26 November 2021), 2 December 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2064808.html

[97] HRW - Human Rights Watch: "No Forgiveness for People Like You"; Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the Taliban, November 2021,

https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2064577/afghanistan1121_web.pdf, pp. 1-2; see also: KP - Khaama Press News Agency: Taliban to investigate torture of former security personnel, 31 December 2021, https://www.khaama.com/taliban-to-investigate-torture-of-former-security-personnel-8687/

[98] AI - Amnesty International: Afghanistan: 13 Hazara killed by Taliban fighters in Daykundi province - new investigation, 5 October 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2061295.html

[99] HRW - Human Rights Watch: "No Forgiveness for People Like You"; Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the Taliban, November 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2064577/afghanistan1121_web.pdf, pp. 1-2

[100] UN General Assembly: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/76/328-S/2021/759], 2 September 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2060189/sg_report_on_afghanistan_september_2021.pdf, pp. 5

[101] FIDH - International Federation for Human Rights: Broken promises: Civil society under siege after 100 days of Taliban takeover, 23 November 2021, https://www.fidh.org/en/region/asia/afghanistan/broken-promises-civil-society-under-siege-after-100-days-of-taliban

[102] DRC - Danish Refugee Council: Afghanistan conference; The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 30 December 2022, https://asyl.drc.ngo/media/13vhsflb/drc-afghanistan-conference-report-28nov2022.pdf, p. 19

[103] CRS - Congressional Research Service: Afghanistan: Post - Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy, 13 December 2017, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30588.pdf, p. 16; BBC News: Afghanistan: Who's who in the Taliban leadership, 7 September 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58235639

[104] DRC - Danish Refugee Council: Afghanistan conference; The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 30 December 2022, https://asyl.drc.ngo/media/13vhsflb/drc-afghanistan-conference-report-28nov2022.pdf, pp. 20-22

[105] UNICRI - United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute: The Taliban in Afghanistan: Assessing New Threats to the Region and Beyond, 25 October 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/52bdb241-6635-484b-9010-aa4f6e960ce2/The%20Taliban%20in%20Afghanistan%20-%20Assessing%20New%20Threats%20to%20the%20Region%20and%20Beyond.pdf, p. 4

[106] UN Security Council: Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2665 (2022) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2023/370], 1 June 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2093255/N2312536.pdf, p. 3

[107] UN Security Council: Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2022/419], 26 May 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073803/N2233377.pdf, p. 8

[108] UN Security Council: Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2665 (2022) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2023/370], 1 June 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2093255/N2312536.pdf, p. 3

[109] BBC News: Afghanistan: Don't recognise Taliban regime, resistance urges, 8 September 2021, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-58484155?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA

[110] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Terrorism 2021 - Chapter 5 - Haqqani Network (HQN), 27 February 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2088213.html

[111] UN Security Council: Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2022/419], 26 May 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073803/N2233377.pdf, p. 9

[112] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Terrorism 2021 - Chapter 5 - Haqqani Network (HQN), 27 February 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2088213.html

[113] UN Security Council: Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2022/419], 26 May 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073803/N2233377.pdf, p. 9

[114] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Terrorism 2021 - Chapter 5 - Haqqani Network (HQN), 27 February 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2088213.html; USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Terrorism 2022 - Chapter 5 - Haqqani Network, 30 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2101658.html

[115] BBC News: Afghanistan: Don't recognise Taliban regime, resistance urges, 8 September 2021, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-58484155?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA

[116] UN Security Council: Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2022/419], 26 May 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073803/N2233377.pdf, pp. 10-11

[117] UN Security Council: Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan [S/2022/419], 26 May 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073803/N2233377.pdf, p. 3

[118] UN Security Council: Thirty-second report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2610 (2021) concerning ISIL (Da'esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities [S/2023/549], 25 July 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2095654/N2318974.pdf, p. 16

[119] CRS - Congressional Research Service: Afghanistan: Post - Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy, 15 October 2015, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30588.pdf, p. 20

[120] UN Security Council: Sixteenth report of the Secretary-General on the threat posed by ISIL (Da'esh) to international peace and security and the range of United Nations efforts in support of Member States in countering the threat [S/2023/76], 1 February 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2087156/N2303122.pdf, p. 2

[121] UN Security Council: Thirty-second report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2610 (2021) concerning ISIL (Da'esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities [S/2023/549], 25 July 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2095654/N2318974.pdf, p. 16

[122] USDOS - US Department of State: Country Report on Terrorism 2022 - Chapter 5 - Islamic State's Khorasan Province, 30 November 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2101641.html

[123] UN Security Council: Thirty-second report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2610 (2021) concerning ISIL (Da'esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities [S/2023/549], 25 July 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2095654/N2318974.pdf, p. 16

[124] HRW - Human Rights Watch: Afghanistan: Surge in Islamic State Attacks on Shia, 25 October 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2062826.html

[125] CT - Critical Threats: Mapping Anti-Taliban Insurgencies in Afghanistan, 22 November 2022, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/mapping-anti-taliban-insurgencies-in-afghanistan

[126] Reuters, No current talks with Taliban, Afghanistan's Massoud says, promising guerrilla warfare, 29 September 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/no-current-talks-with-taliban-afghanistans-massoud-says-promising-guerrilla-2023-09-29/

[127] ACLED - Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project & APW - Afghan Peace Watch: Tracking disorder during Taliban rule in Afghanistan; A Joint ACLED and APW Report, April 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2071514/ACLED_APW_JointReport_Tracking-Disorder-During-Taliban-Rule-in-Afghanistan_WebFin2022.pdf, p. 9; UNICRI - United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute: The Taliban in Afghanistan: Assessing New Threats to the Region and Beyond, 25 October 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/52bdb241-6635-484b-9010-aa4f6e960ce2/The%20Taliban%20in%20Afghanistan%20-%20Assessing%20New%20Threats%20to%20the%20Region%20and%20Beyond.pdf, pp. 8-9

[128] UNGA - UN General Assembly & UNSC - UN Security Council: The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security; Report of the Secretary-General [A/77/340-S/2022/692], 14 September 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2079419/N2259109.pdf, p. 4

[129] CT - Critical Threats: Mapping Anti-Taliban Insurgencies in Afghanistan, 22 November 2022, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/mapping-anti-taliban-insurgencies-in-afghanistan

Table of contents

1. Brief overview

2. History

3. Ethnic and religious groups

4. Women

5. Humanitarian situation

6. Returnees and internally displaced persons

7. New takeover by the Taliban in 2021

8. Key actors
a. Taliban
b. Haqqani Netwe+ork
c. Al-Qaeda
d. Islamic State in Khorasan Province (ISKP)
e. Resistance groups

Cite as

ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation: ecoi.net: Afghanistan - Country Briefing, 15 April 2024
https://www.ecoi.net/en/countries/afghanistan/briefing/

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