Country Briefing

Area:	17,098,242 km2[1]
Capital:	Moscow[2]
Population:	Between approx. 142 (2023 estimate) million[3] and 147 million[4]
Official languages:	Russian[5] , other official languages also exist regionally[6]
Currency:	Russian rouble[7]

1. Brief overview of the Russian Federation

Geography: The Russian Federation (hereafter: Russia) is the largest country on Earth in terms of area. Russia borders the Arctic Ocean (Arctic Ocean) to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the east. To the south, Russia borders North Korea, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and to the southwest and west Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Norway.[8] The Russian enclave of Kaliningrad borders Lithuania to the north and east, Poland to the south and the Baltic Sea to the west. The port of Baltiysk is the base of the Baltic Fleet of the Russian Navy. [9]

Population: The majority of the Russian population is ethnic Russian (77.7 per cent),[10] according to the 2010 census there were 193 other ethnic groups and subgroups[11] . The largest minority groups include Tatar, Ukrainian, Bashkir, Chuvash and Chechen.[12] According to official data (for the period 2017-2020), 277 languages and dialects are spoken in Russia[13] , other sources speak of around 100 languages.[14] The law explicitly mentions four traditional religions in Russia: Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Buddhism.[15] Russian Orthodox Christianity is the most widespread religion (with more than 70 per cent[16]), Muslims form the second largest religious group.[17]

Administrative units: Russia is divided into 83 federal subjects, including 21 republics, 9 regions, 46 oblasts, 4 autonomous districts, 2 cities of federal rank (Moscow and St. Petersburg) and one autonomous area (the Birobidzhan Autonomous Jewish Oblast). After the internationally unrecognised annexation of Crimea in 2014, it was given the status of a republic, while Sevastopol was elevated to a city of federal rank.[18] In September 2022, Russia also annexed the Ukrainian territories of Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhya in violation of international law[19], with the first two being incorporated into the Russian Federation as republics and the other two as territories[20] .

A map of Russia's internationally recognised administrative units can be found here.

Political structure: Russia has been an independent state since the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991.[21] The 1993 constitution provides for a mixed parliamentary-presidential system in which parliament and president are directly elected by the people. In practice, however, according to Margareta Mommsen, professor emerita of political science at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, the system has developed in the direction of presidential rule - or super-presidential rule - in which parliament and political parties are only of secondary importance.[22] Since 2013, the term of office of the Russian president has been six years; a constitutional amendment set the previous terms of office of President Vladimir Putin, who ruled from 2000 to 2008 and again since 2012, to zero, allowing him to run again in presidential elections and thus continue to rule until 2036.[23] In addition, the constitution now guarantees former presidents lifelong immunity.[24] The bicameral parliament is composed of a lower house (the State Duma) and an upper house (the Federation Council); members of the State Duma are elected directly or by list.[25] In the last elections in September 2021, the ruling party[26] United Russia won a total of 324 of the 450 seats in an election process marked by irregularities. [27]

2. Ukraine conflict

In late autumn 2013, there were mass protests in Kiev against the then President Viktor Yanukovych, triggered by his decision not to pursue a planned association agreement with the EU. After months of protests, some of which were marked by violent clashes with security forces, Yanukovych resigned from office in February 2014 and fled the country. Shortly afterwards, in March 2014, Russia annexed the Crimean peninsula, which belongs to Ukraine.[28] A little later, pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine proclaimed the People's Republics of Luhansk and Donetsk, which receive political and economic support from Russia.[29] Attempts to resolve the conflict through negotiations and within the framework of the so-called Minsk agreements failed due to the different interests of the actors involved.[30] From spring 2021, the conflict flared up again, Russia massed soldiers on the borders around Ukraine, diplomatic efforts to de-escalate failed.[31] On 24 February 2022, Russian troops invaded Ukraine. A few days earlier, President Putin had recognised the independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics. The military action against Ukraine was justified, among other things, with the protection of the Russian-speaking population, a demilitarisation and "denazification" of Ukraine and the defence against further NATO expansion. Moreover, in an essay written in the summer of 2021, Vladimir Putin effectively denied Ukraine's right to exist. [32]

Deployment in Ukraine:

Russia initially wanted to wage the war in Ukraine, described as a "special military operation", with professional soldiers and members of security organs alone, but losses forced President Putin to announce a partial mobilisation in September 2022.[33] In addition to the regular Russian army, Chechens in particular, who according to Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov volunteer to fight in Ukraine[34] , as well as the paramilitary group Wagner, which also recruits prisoners[35] , have been deployed.

For information on partial mobilisation in the Russian Federation, please see the following information collection.

ecoi.net search results on military service and conscription are available here, ecoi.net search results on recruitment for the Ukraine war are available here.

3. Restrictions on fundamental rights in Russia

Under Vladimir Putin, Russia has developed into a highly centralised and authoritarian state.[36] The pressure on representatives of the opposition and civil society has been continuously increased in recent years[37] and intensified again after the invasion of Ukraine[38] . NGOs are subject to harassment and reprisals in Russia due to the so-called laws on "foreign agents" and "undesirable foreign organisations".[39] In December 2021, Memorial, the best-known Russian human rights organisation, was dissolved[40]. The Moscow Helsinki Group, the country’s oldest human rights organisation,followed in January 2023[41] . The rights to freedom of expression and assembly are restricted[42] and ethnic, religious and sexual minorities are prevented from exercising their rights.[43] In addition, the judiciary and courts are subject to frequent interference. [44]

4. Chechnya

Chechnya is a constituent republic of Russia in the North Caucasus[45] with approximately 1.4[46] - 1.5 million inhabitants[47] , mainly Chechens[48] . After the collapse of the Soviet Union, elites there took advantage of the power vacuum[49] and declared the independence of the republic[50] . The independence efforts culminated in the two Chechen wars, which lasted from 1994-1996 and from 1999 to 2009.[51] After an election marked by irregularities, Akhmat Kadyrov, who was loyal to the Kremlin and had himself previously belonged to the rebels, was elected President of Chechnya in October 2003.[52] His son, Ramzan Kadyrov, was given the post of security chief and from then on commanded a militia of pro-Russian Chechens (also called Kadyrovtsy)[53] , which is accused of serious human rights violations.[54] Akhmat Kadyrov fell victim to an attack in May 2004 and was replaced by the then Minister of the Interior.[55] Ramzan Kadyrov became deputy prime minister, though many considered him the de facto leader[56] . In 2007, upon reaching the required age, President Putin proposed Ramzan Kadyrov as Chechen President, which was confirmed by the Chechen Parliament.[57] Chechnya is now considered a state within a state[58] , has certain political and economic autonomy rights[59] , and applies customary Adat and Sharia law in part instead of the laws in force in Russia[60] . Ramzan Kadyrov rules with a firm hand[61] and takes action against any criticism[62] . There are regular reports of serious human rights violations in the region[63] , including against LGBT persons[64] . Ramzan Kadyrov repeatedly expresses his loyalty to Vladimir Putin, including by sending Chechen fighters to Ukraine to support the Russian army.[65]

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Footnotes

[1] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries

[2] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries

[3] CIA Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries

[4] Rosstat: Federal State Statistics Service: 1. Население, учтенное при Всероссийской переписи населения 2020 Года [Population counted in the All-Russian Census 2020], no date, https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/tab-1_VPN-2020.xlsx

[5] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries

[6] Eberhard, David M./Simons, Gary F./Fennig, Charles D. (eds.): Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-sixth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2023, https://www.ethnologue.com/country/RU/; Russia Beyond: The Most Commonly Spoken Languages in Russia, 21 September 2021,
https://de.rbth.com/lifestyle/85346-am-haeufigsten-gesprochenen-sprachen-in-russland

[7] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries

[8] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Russia - Country, 9 March 2023,
https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38573

[9] BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation: Kaliningrad Profile, 14 December 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18284828

[10] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries

[11] Minority Rights Group International: Russian Federation, December 2020, https://minorityrights.org/country/russian-federation/

[12] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Country Summary, 22 February 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries;
Minority Rights Group International: Russian Federation, December 2020,
https://minorityrights.org/country/russian-federation/

[13] Government of the Russian Federation: Fifth Report submitted by the Russian Federation [ACFC/SR/V(2021)002], published by CoE-FCNM - Council of Europe - Secretariat of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 13 April 2021, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2050978/5th+SR+Russian+Federation+EN.docx.pdf, p. 3.

[14] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Russia - Ethnic groups and languages, 9 March 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38596;
Eberhard, David M./Simons, Gary F./Fennig, Charles D. (eds.): Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-sixth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2023,
https://www.ethnologue.com/country/RU/

[15] AA - Auswärtiges Amt: . Bericht der Bundesregierung zur weltweiten Lage der Religionsfreiheit, October 2020, https://religionsfreiheit.bmz.de/resource/blob/75342/zweiter-religionsfreiheitsbericht.pdf; p. 255

[16] Hartwich, Inna: Die Rolle der Religion in Russland, published by bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 3 February 2011, https://www.bpb.de/themen/europa/russland/47992/die-rolle-der-religion-in-russland/?p=all; AA - Auswärtiges Amt: 2. Bericht der Bundesregierung zur weltweiten Lage der Religionsfreiheit, October 2020, https://religionsfreiheit.bmz.de/resource/blob/75342/zweiter-religionsfreiheitsbericht.pdf; p. 256

[17] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Russia - Religion of Russia, 9 March 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Religion

[18] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Administrative Divisions, 2 March 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/summaries/#government; AA - Auswärtiges Amt: Russian Federation: Politisches Portrait, 19 October 2022, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/aussenpolitik/laender/russischefoederation-node/politisches-portrait/201710?view=

[19] AA - Auswärtiges Amt: Russian Federation: Politisches Portrait, 19 October 2022, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/aussenpolitik/laender/russischefoederation-node/politisches-portrait/201710?view=

[20] Tass: История вхождения республик Донбасса, Запорожской и Херсонской областей в состав РФ [The History of the Incorporation of the Republics of the Donbass and the Zaporizhzhya and Kherson Oblasts into the Russian Federation], 3. October 2022, https://tass.ru/info/15941231

[21] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Russia - Government and Society, 9 March 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Government-and-society

[22] Mommsen, Margareta: Verfassungsordnung versus politische Realität, published by bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 26 March 2018a, https://www.bpb.de/themen/europa/russland/47940/verfassungsordnung-versus-politische-realitaet/

[23] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Politisches System und aktuelle Politik in Russland, 21 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/russland-politisches-system

[24] KAS - Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung: Russlands neue Verfassung, July 2020, https://www.kas.de/documents/252038/7938566/Russlands+new+constitution.pdf/98a99078-4c44-87ac-bf83-a5f18d21df10?version=1.0&t=1593680876015, pp. 3-6

[25] bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Duma-Wahl in Russland, 16 September 2021, https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/340337/duma-wahl-in-russland/

[26] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Politisches System und aktuelle Politik in Russland, 21 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/russland-politisches-system

[27] Kluge, Janis/Schübel, Leslie: Russlands Dumawahl 2021, published by SWP - Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, October 2021, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/aktuell/2021A67_dumawahl_2021.pdf, p. 1-3

[28] bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Acht Fragen zum Krieg in der Ukraine, 7 March 2022, https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/505946/acht-fragen-zum-krieg-in-der-ukraine/

[29] Fischer, Sabine: Der Donbas-Konflikt, published by SWP - Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, October 2021, 3 February 2019, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/studien/2019S03_fhs.pdf, pp. 9, 15

[30] bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Acht Fragen zum Krieg in der Ukraine, 7 March 2022, https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/505946/acht-fragen-zum-krieg-in-der-ukraine/

[31] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Ukraine-Krieg aktuell 2023 -

Russia-Ukraine conflict explained, March 2023, https://www.lpb-bw.de/ukrainekonflikt

[32] bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Acht Fragen zum Krieg in der Ukraine, 7 March 2022, https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/505946/acht-fragen-zum-krieg-in-der-ukraine/; Reuters: Extracts from Putin's speech on Ukraine, 21 February 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/extracts-putins-speech-ukraine-2022-02-21/

[33] NZZ - Neue Zürcher Zeitung: 4000 Franken Belohnung für einen abgeschossenen Kampfjet – wie Russland und die Ukraine mit den Herausforderungen des Krieges umgehen, 30 January 2023, https://www.nzz.ch/international/ukraine-krieg-rekrutierung-ausbildung-entloehnung-durch-armeen-ld.1721275

[34] Caucasian Knot: Kadyrov denies forcibly sending Chechens to frontline, 30 December 2022, https://eng.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/61902/

[35] BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation: What is Russia's Wagner Group of mercenaries in Ukraine?, 23 January 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-60947877

[36] CIA - Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook - Russia, Introduction, 2 March 2023, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#introduction, Mommsen, Margareta: Einleitung, published by bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 26 March 2018b,, https://www.bpb.de/themen/europa/russland/47932/politisches-system/; lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Demokratie und Rechtsstaatlichkeit in Russland, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/russland-demokratie-rechtsstaatlichkeit

[37] AI - Amnesty International: Russia: Russland: Zwei Jahre nach der Festnahme von Alexej Nawalny wird die Opposition weiterhin unterdrückt, 23 January 2023, https://www.amnesty.de/informieren/aktuell/russland-repression-oppositionelle-unterdrueckung-alexej-nawalny; The Moscow Times: Russia Outlaws Lithuania-Based Opposition Forum as 'Undesirable', 1 February 2023, https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/02/01/russia-outlaws-lithuania-based-opposition-forum-as-undesirable-a80110; OHCHR - UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Russia: UN experts condemn civil society shutdown, 13 July 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2075447.html; lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Politisches System und aktuelle Politik in Russland, 21 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/russland-politisches-system

[38] HRW - Human Rights Watch: World Report 2023 - Russian Federation, 12 January 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2085489.html The Moscow Times: Russia Outlaws Lithuania-Based Opposition Forum as 'Undesirable', 1 February 2023, https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/02/01/russia-outlaws-lithuania-based-opposition-forum-as-undesirable-a80110; OHCHR - UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Russia: UN experts condemn civil society shutdown, 13 July 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2075447.html

[39] CoE-CommDH - Council of Europe - Commissioner for Human Rights: Human rights defenders in Russia need support, 25 January 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2088338.html; Dekoder: Inoagenty: Wer alles als „ausländischer Agent“ gilt, no date, https://www.dekoder.org/de/article/auslaendische-agenten-liste-medien-ngos-aktivisten-journalisten; MDR - Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk: Putins Kampf gegen "ausländische Agenten", 28 December 2021, https://www.mdr.de/nachrichten/welt/osteuropa/politik/russland-auslaendische-agenten-100.html

[40] Schor-Tschudnowskaja, Anna: Der Friedensnobelpreis 2022 für Memorial, published by bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 10 October 2022, https://www.bpb.de/themen/deutschlandarchiv/345507/der-friedensnobelpreis-2022-fuer-memorial/; HRW - Human Rights Watch: World Report 2023 - Russian Federation, 12 January 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2085489.html

[41] CoE-CommDH - Council of Europe - Commissioner for Human Rights: Human rights defenders in Russia need support, 25 January 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2088338.html; BAMF - Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge: Briefing Notes, 30 January 2023.
https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/DE/Behoerde/Informationszentrum/BriefingNotes/2023/briefingnotes-kw05-2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4, p. 11

[42] HRW - Human Rights Watch: World Report 2023 - Russian Federation, 12 January 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2085489.html; Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2023 - Russia, 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2088552.html; lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Demokratie und Rechtsstaatlichkeit in Russland, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/russland-demokratie-rechtsstaatlichkeit;

[43] Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2023 - Russia, 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2088552.html; USDOS - US Department of State: 2021 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Russia, 12 April 2022, https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2071123.html

[44] Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2023 - Russia, 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2088552.html; ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen: Im Visier von Putins Machtapparat, 1 December 2022, https://www.zdf.de/nachrichten/politik/russland-putin-agentengesetz-buergerrechtler-ngo-100.html; lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Demokratie und Rechtsstaatlichkeit in Russland, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/russland-demokratie-rechtsstaatlichkeit

[45] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Chechnya - Introduction, 11 November 2022, https://www.britannica.com/place/Chechnya

[46] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg

[47] BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation: Chechnya Profile, 11 January 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18188085

[48] Encyclopaedia Britannica: Chechnya - People, 11 November 2022, https://www.britannica.com/place/Chechnya

[49] Bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Vor 20 Jahren: Zweiter Tschetschenienkrieg, 27 September 2019, https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/297700/vor-20-jahren-zweiter-tschetschenienkrieg/

[50] BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation: Chechnya Profile, 11 January 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18188085; lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg; Encyclopaedia Britannica: Chechnya - History, 11 November 2022, https://www.britannica.com/place/Chechnya

[51] Bpb - Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Vor 20 Jahren: Zweiter Tschetschenienkrieg, 27 September 2019, https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/297700/vor-20-jahren-zweiter-tschetschenienkrieg/; Encyclopaedia Britannica: Chechnya - History, 11 November 2022, https://www.britannica.com/place/Chechnya

[52] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg; DW - Deutsche Welle: Fragwürdiger Sieg in Tschetschenien, 7 October 2003, https://www.dw.com/de/fragw%C3%BCrdiger-sieg-in-tschetschenien/a-986873; ORF - Österreichischer Rundfunk: Putins Mann fürs Grobe mit tragender Rolle, 30 March 2022, https://orf.at/stories/3256468/

[53] Halbach, Uwe: Tschetscheniens Stellung in der Russischen Föderation, published by SWP - Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, October 2021, March 2018, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/studien/2018S01_hlb.pdf, p. 13; DW - Deutsche Welle: Ramsan Kadyrow, Putins erster Kämpfer, 8 October 2022, https://www.dw.com/de/ramsan-kadyrow-putins-erster-k%C3%A4mpfer/a-63380288

[54] DW - Deutsche Welle: Ramsan Kadyrow, Putins erster Kämpfer, 8 October 2022, https://www.dw.com/de/ramsan-kadyrow-putins-erster-k%C3%A4mpfer/a-63380288; BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation: Putin allies who criticise Russia's war machine, 8 November 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63468600; lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg, RFE/RL - Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: Arrest Of Rights Activist In Chechnya Continues A Suspect Tradition, 10 January 2018, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1421719.html

[55] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg; DW - Deutsche Welle: Who is Vladimir Putin ally Ramzan Kadyrov?, 10 July 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/chechen-leader-ramzan-kadyrov-russian-president-vladimir-putins-ally-in-ukraine/a-63368656

[56] DW - Deutsche Welle: Who is Vladimir Putin ally Ramzan Kadyrov?, 10 July 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/chechen-leader-ramzan-kadyrov-russian-president-vladimir-putins-ally-in-ukraine/a-63368656; RFE/RL - Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: Analysis: Chechen Strongman Poised To Become Prime Minister, 3 March 2006, https://www.rferl.org/a/1066331.html

[57] VOA - Voice of America: Putin's Choice Approved as New President of Chechnya, 1 November 2009, https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2007-03-03-voa11/347652.html; DW - Deutsche Welle: Who is Vladimir Putin ally Ramzan Kadyrov?, 10 July 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/chechen-leader-ramzan-kadyrov-russian-president-vladimir-putins-ally-in-ukraine/a-63368656

[58] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg; Decoder: Chechnya, 21 February 2019, https://www.dekoder.org/de/gnose/tschetschenien-geschichte-kadyrow-titijew

[59] lpb - Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg: Tschetschenienkrieg, 19 July 2022, https://osteuropa.lpb-bw.de/tschetschenienkrieg; Perovic, Jeronim: Staat im Staate, published by KAS - Konrad Adenauer Foundation, 12 December 2022, https://www.kas.de/de/web/die-politische-meinung/artikel/detail/-/content/staat-im-staate

[60] CSIS - Center for Strategic and International Studies: Civil Society in the North Caucasus, 24 January 2020, https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/200124_North_Caucasus.pdf, p. 8; Decoder: Tschetschenien, 21 February 2019, https://www.dekoder.org/de/gnose/tschetschenien-geschichte-kadyrow-titijew

[61] Die Zeit, Kadyrow droht russischen Oppositionellen, 19 January 2016, https://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2016-01/tschetschenien-praesident-ramsan-kadyrow-opposition-russland?mode=recommendation&page=25; Salzburger Nachrichten: Tschetschenien-Chef Kadyrow von Putin geehrt, https://www.sn.at/politik/weltpolitik/tschetschenien-chef-kadyrow-von-putin-geehrt-90569512; Wiener Zeitung, Putin befiehlt verstärkte Bewachung durch Geheimdienst, 8 October 2022, https://www.wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/politik/europa/2164295-Putin-befiehlt-verstaerkte-Bewachung-durch-Geheimdienst.html

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