Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1985
NIGERIA
On August 27, 1985, military officers overthrew the
20-month-old government of Major General Muhammadu Buhari and
installed Major General Ibrahim Babangida as President.
Babangida was Chief of the Army Staff in the Buhari
government, which had itself seized power from a civilian
government in December 1983. A 28-member Armed Forces Ruling
Council (AFRC) is the main decisionmaking organ of the
Government, while a 22-member Federal Cabinet presides over
the Government's executive departments. Military governors,
appointed by the President and assisted by executive councils,
head Nigeria's 19 state governments. The 1979 Constitution
remains partially in effect, but significant provisions,
namely those guaranteeing such democratic features as free
elections and political parties and such fundamental
individual rights as due process and habeas corpus, are
suspended. In December 1985, the Babangida Government
thwarted a coup plot by disgruntled military officers. The
plot was widely condemned by the Nigerian public.
Courts-martial of those suspected of involvement were pending
at the end of the year .
Legislation at both the federal and state levels continues to
be promulgated by decree. All decrees are exempt from
challenge in the courts and under the previous military
governnient some decrees had ex post facto effect. The
Government enforces its authority through the federal security
apparatus: the national police, the military, and the
Nigerian Security Organization (NSO) . No separate law
enforcement agencies exist at the state and local levels.
Nigeria, with an estimated 100 million people, is Africa's
most populous country. It has a mixed economy in which the
Government plays a major role in important sectors. In
October, the military Government declared a 15-month state of
"economic emergency" in an effort to revitalize Nigeria's
sluggish economy. It pledged a reduction of bureaucratic and
administrative fetters on the economy in order to encourage
new private investment. The Government also announced that it
would rely on market forces to induce more efficient resource
allocation, revitalize moribund industries, and stimulate
production of palm oil, cocoa, and other commodities that
Nigeria relied on for foreign exchange before the oil boom of
the 1970 's.
The new Government moved quickly to demonstrate its commitment
to human rights. It repealed a controversial decree that
inhibited press freedoms, named a panel to review the
remaining decrees of the previous government, formed a
committee to review the cases of all current and former
detainees, as well as those previously sentenced by military
tribunals, and named a prominent, outspoken human rights
advocate as Attorney General and Minister of Justice. Since
the coup, the Government has released approximately 150
persons detained without charges and released or remanded to
the criminal court system common criminals detained by the
NSO. The traditionally independent judiciary remains intact,
although its authority continues to be limited by the
existence of military and special tribunals created by decree
in 1984. During the first half of 1985, these tribunals
convicted civilians of crimes defined by the provisions of
certain military decrees.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1
Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including
Freedom from:
a. Political Killing
There is no evidence of killing for political motives. No
former officeholder or politician ousted by either recent
military government and tried by military tribunals has
received the death penalty.
b. Disappearance
There are no known instances of politically motivated or
government-instigated disappearances in Nigeria during 1985.
c. Torture and Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment
There were no confirmed reports of torture in 1985. Some
detainees interviewed after the August coup accused the
Nigerian Security Organization (NSO) of using torture or
degrading practices against them prior to the coup. Those
allegations were under investigation at the end of 1985. A
portion of the 1979 Constitution which is still in effect
outlaws torture and the mistreatment of prisoners. Nigerian
law provides that such excesses be dealt with in criminal or
civil proceedings. There are reports of crowded and austere
prison conditions and mistreatment, including brutality. The
opening to public view, following the August coup, of the
NSO's main detention center confirmed these reports and
revealed the presence of many detainees held without charges
for as long as 18 months.
Under the terms of Decree 20, Special Tribunal (Miscellaneous
Offenses) Decree, which continues in effect, the previous
government extended the death penalty in 1984 to a number of
crimes including arson, tampering with oil pipelines or
electric or telephone cables, illegal import or export of
mineral ore, dealing in narcotics, illegally dealing in
petroleum products, counterfeiting, and armed robbery even
when no death or injury occurs. Three cocaine traffickers
sentenced to death by a special tribunal were executed in
April. Two of the three committed their offenses prior to the
issuance of Decree 20. The press reported widespread public
criticism of these executions by groups of lawyers, judges,
and women, among others. Since then, other offenders have
been sentenced to death for drug trafficking, but there have
been no further known executions for this offense.
Subsequently, the Chief of General Staff announced in November
that there would no longer be a death penalty for convicted
drug traffickers. Executions for armed robbery occurred in
1985 under both governments, which justified these punishments
as necessary to restore order and discipline in society.
d. Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile
The arbitrary arrest and prolonged detention of persons,
including foreigners, continued in 1985. The State Security
(Detention of Persons) Decree, issued as Decree no. 2 in 1984
and still in force, allows for the detention of persons
suspected of acts prejudicial to state security or harmful to
the economic well-being of the country. The number of persons
detained under this decree, which suspends the constitutional
guarantee of the right to habeas corpus and cannot be
challenged in any court of law, is unknown. Among the
foreigners detained under this decree have been several
Americans, some of whom were held for several months before
being granted consular access or having charges filed against
them. One American detained in 1984 for three months without
consular access, and held nine months before charges were
filed, was acquitted in January by a special tribunal and
released. After the August coup, the new Government
discovered that some common criminals had been detained
without being charged under this decree, some for longer than
sentences appropriate to their crimes would have required.
Both governments in power in 1985 released some persons
detained under the state security decree. Some of the
released persons have had to pay fines, and others must report
regularly to the Nigerian Security Organization. Since
August, the criminal suspects discovered in detention have
been turned over to the criminal court system or released.
Among the many persons still detained are former President
Shehu Shagari, his Vice President Alex Ekwueme, former Head of
State Muhammadu Buhari, and his Chief of Staff Tunde
Idiagbon. The postcoup Government has established a panel to
review the cases of all current and former detainees, as well
as those previously sentenced by military tribunals. The new
Government has also established a panel to review all decrees
of the previous government, including the State Security
Decree. In December, the Government announced formation of a
third judicial commission which will be tasked with examining
cases of persons held in custody under Decrees 2 and 3 and of
persons who have been conditionally released since the August
coup.
The military Government does not use forced labor as a means
of political coercion or as a sanction against free
expression. Nigeria's 1979 Constitution provides that "no
person shall be held in slavery or servitude; and no person
shall be required to perform forced or compulsory labour."
The latter excludes community service programs and "normal
communal or civic obligations for the well-being of the
community." This exception is relevant to special
environmental clean-up campaigns launched by the Buhari
government that recjuired both government and private sector
employees to devote specified amounts of volunteer time
cleaning the areas surrounding their places of employment.
No one has been exiled. The current Government has said that
self-exiled former politicians are free to return home with
the caveat that those suspected of crimes will be subject to
prosecution.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
Provisions of the 1979 Constitution still in force guarantee
persons charged with crimes a fair public trial in civilian
courts within three months from the date of arrest.
Cumbersome administrative procedures and inefficiency
sometimes extend this time period. The Constitution also
guarantees notification of charges and access to legal
counsel. Such trials are public and adhere to
constitutionally guaranteed individual rights. The new
Government has assured the judiciary of independence from the
executive branch. In capital cases, the Government provides
counsel for indigent defendants. In other cases, indigents
must rely for counsel on the Nigerian Legal Aid Society, which
has limited resources.
Decrees promulgated by the previous government, which are
currently under review, removed certain crimes from the
jurisdiction of the civilian judicial system and subjected
those charged with these crimes to secret trial by specially
constituted tribunals. Decree 3, Recovery of Public Property
(Special Military Tribunals), places persons suspected of
corrupt practices or of otherwise contributing to the
country's economic adversity under the jurisdiction of special
military tribunals, chaired by military officers with a
federal or state high court justice as a legal advisor.
Decree 20 brought persons accused of crimes such as currency
violations, accusations against public officials, arson,
import and export of certain goods, destruction of public
property, and use or possession of drugs under the
jurisdiction of other tribunals in which federal or state high
court justices headed panels of military and police officers.
According to the decrees, all tribunal verdicts are subject to
review by the ruling military council which can confirm,
overturn, or reduce the penalties with no further appeal
allowed. Convicted defendants have generally received the
21-year sentences prescribed by the decrees, but the Supreme
Military Council reduced the severity of some sentences upon
review. Despite decree provisions prohibiting appeal of
tribunal convictions, the Government established in November
two panels to review the cases of all persons convicted under
Decrees 3, 7, and 20 with a view to upholding, reducing, or
overturning the convictions. Distinguished and experienced
judges were named to head the panels that will function
essentially as courts of appeal.
The Nigerian Bar Association continued in 1985 to urge its
members to boycott corruption trials because of the presence
of members without legal training on the tribunals, the
requirement that the corruption trials be held in camera, and
the absence of a right of appeal. Some lawyers have ignored
the Bar Association's position and represented the accused.
While procedural norms appear to be followed by the tribunals,
some defendants have had little time to consult a lawyer or to
prepare a defense.
f . Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or
Correspondence
Nigerian society is generally free of arbitrary interference
by the State in the private lives of citizens. The modified
Nigerian Constitution guarantees rights of privacy in the
home, correspondence, and oral electronic communications.
General surveillance of the population by the State is not
practiced in Nigeria. There is no political enforcement of
social, cultural, or religious codes. Forced entry into homes
by police and security officials is not generally permitted
without the authorization of the judiciary. However, the
police and members of the Nigerian Security Organization have
occasionally entered homes and offices without a warrant when
seeking evidence in corruption cases.
Section 2 Respect for Civil Rights, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
The modified Nigerian Constitution guarantees freedom of
expression and the press. The Government fully restored these
freedoms immediately after the August coup with the repeal of
Decree 4, the Public Officers (Protection Against False
Accusation) Decree, which had made it an offense for any
person to publish a statement, rumor, message, or report about
a government official that was false or designed to subject
the government to ridicule. Two journalists convicted in 1984
under provisions of this decree were released from prison in
early 1985 after serving their one-year sentences. Following
the repeal of Decree 4, the Government released five other
journalists who had been detained under Decree 2, the State
Security (Detention of Persons) Decree. There is no direct
government censorship of the media, including of books, but
there was evidence of self-censorship by all media while
Decree 4 was in force. Prior to the August 27 coup, private
newspapers claimed that the government discriminated against
them in the allocation of newsprint. These complaints ceased
after the coup.
Among the vast array of Nigerian daily newspapers is one
jointly owned by the federal and several northern state
governments. Another is owned 60 percent by the federal
Government. Four national dailies with large circulations are
privately owned. Some state governments operate their own
newspapers. In some states, privately owned dailies compete
with state papers. There are also no restrictions on
ownership of other forms of print media. The Constitution,
however, reserves the right to own and operate radio and
television stations for the federal and state governments.
b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
Political parties, provided for in the 1979 Nigerian
Constitution, remain banned. A 1984 decree authorizes the
Government to dissolve any other group considered to have
objectives similar to those of a political party. Just prior
to the August coup, the Buhari government banned public
discussion of the country's political future and arrested some
journalists and others for allegedly defying the law. In
February, the previous government banned the Nigerian Medical
Association (NMA) and the National Association of Residential
Doctors (NARD) during a strike by doctors in government
hospitals that was crushed by this and other tough government
measures. This banning remained in force at the end of 1985.
The National Union of Nigerian Students (NUNS) remained banned
and its offshoot organization, the National Association of
Nigerian Students (NANS), is not recognized by the
Government. NANS' leaders were, however, found to be not
guilty by a regular court in January of meeting for an
allegedly illegal purpose five months earlier. In July, the
Nigerian National Police arrested six NANS student leaders at
the University of Port Harcourt for holding an unauthorized
meeting. Following sympathy demonstrations on the Port
Harcourt campus and at the University of Ibadan, the police
arrested more students and temporarily closed the two campuses.
Nigeria has ratified International Labor Organization (ILO)
Conventions 87 (Freedom of Association and Right to Organize)
and 98 (Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining).
Nigerian trade union, social, and professional organizations
are guaranteed the right of association by the 1979
Constitution. On the international level, government policy
since 1975 has limited union freedom of association to the
ILO, the Organization of African Trade Union Unity, and its
affiliated Pan-African Labor Federations. Membership is
prohibited in such international bodies as the World
Federation of Trade Unions and World Confederation of Labor,
but "fraternal relations" with foreign trade unions and
secretariats are permitted as long as there is no formal
affiliation.
Nigeria has 42 industrial unions, one senior staff
association, and one professional association that comprise
the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) , the country's single
central labor body. Nigeria's industrial union leaders are
democratically elected and independent of government control.
Thanks to mandatory dues checkoffs, most of the larger
industrial unions are financially independent. Some unions,
especially small ones, however, are reportedly in serious
financial difficulties following three years of depressed
economic conditions. All Nigerian workers 16 years or older
may join trade unions, except members of the armed forces and
designated employees of essential government services at the
federal, state, and local levels. Employers are obliged to
recognize trade unions and, since 1978, must pay a dues
checkoff for employees who are members of a registered trade
union. The establishment of closed shops is prohibited.
Nigerian law and practice generally provide that the terms and
conditions of labor will be determined by collective
bargaining agreements between management and trade unions.
However, in 1984 the previous government imposed a national
wage freeze and virtually ordered the NLC trade unions to
suspend collective bargaining negotiations for one year; the
latter order was allowed to lapse in 1985 but the wage freeze
was extended. On November 1, the new Government ordered
specified wage cuts for all employees in government ministries
and bodies, government-owned companies, and educational
institutions without regard to preexisting contracts, and
without effective consultation with the affected trade
unions. The pay cuts were extended into the private sector
following government consultations with the Nigeria Labour
Congress (NLC) on November 22. The Government also set up a
tripartite committee of government, private sector employers,
and the NLC to consult on future emergency economic measures,
and a decree issued on November 11, the National Economic
Emergency Decree, grants the Government broad authority until
December 1986 to issue orders pertaining to "labour matters
generally," including issues pertaining to trade disputes.
Industrial disputes ordinarily are governed by the 1976 Trade
Disputes Decree, which provides for various conciliation and
mediation measures by an industrial arbitration panel and a
national industrial court. Strikes and lockouts are forbidden
while disputes are under consideration by these bodies. In
theory this means that most strikes are illegal, but in
practice government intervention has varied widely. In
previous years, several hundred work stoppages annually were
the norm, whereas only 69 occurred between May 1984 and May
1985. This sharp reduction reflected both the weakened
bargaining position of unions during depressed economic
conditions and the impact of warnings by the ousted government
that it would not tolerate industrial indiscipline.
c. Freedom of Religion
Constitutional provisions of freedom of religion, religious
practice, and religious education are generally respected
throughout the country. There are reports of harassment of
Christians by state officials in the Muslim North in the form
of excessive bureaucratic requirements for church construction
projects and occasional refusal of permission to build. There
are no restrictions on numbers of clergy trained nor on
contacts with coreligionists in other countries. Religious
travel, including the Hajj, is permitted and in some cases
officially supported. Missionaries and foreign clergy are
permitted to enter Nigeria but their activities are not
encouraged. In June, the federal Government issued a decree
requiring licensing of religious services outside churches and
mosques .
Nigeria's population is approximately one-half Muslim and more
than one-third Christian, with the remainder being mostly
adherents of traditional beliefs. Interreligious marriages
occur frequently. Islam and Christianity compete for converts
and influence throughout much of the country, especially in
the belt of states between the predominantly Muslim North and
the predominantly Christian South. Polarization between
Christian and Islamic communities most often occurs where a
"religious difference" is associated with geographic or ethnic
differences. There were no reports of incidents between the
two communities in 1985. Despite the religious dominance of
Islam and Christianity, non-Muslim/non-Christian minority
communities generally live under peaceful conditions
throughout the country.
The 1982 ban on the Muslim Maitatsine sect remains in effect.
The group still exists, however, and was behind the April 1985
disturbances in the northern town of Gombe. Police moved
against the rioters, who had threatened to set Gombe on fire
unless their leader was released, and killed an estimated 100
people, about half of them Maitatsine followers. An almost
equal number were reportedly killed indiscriminately by the
rioters themselves. While Nigeria's Constitution prohibits
"secret societies," the restrictions against the Muslim
Maitatsine sect represent the only publicized example of
proscription of a religious sect in Nigeria.
d. Freedom of Movement Within the Country, Foreign
Travel, Emigration, and Repatriation
Nigeria's Constitution entitles citizens "to move freely
throughout Nigeria and to reside in any part thereof." The
same provision states that "no citizen of Nigeria shall be
expelled from Nigeria or refused entry thereto or exit
therefrom." In general, these provisions have been observed.
Some of the detainees released in 1985, however, must report
periodically to the Nigerian Security Organization. Police
checks on streets and highways impede but do not prevent
travel .
The ease of foreign travel has been affected by stringent
government restrictions on the amount of Nigerian currency
that may be converted for use outside the country and by the
fact that Nigeria's land borders have been closed since April
1984. In January, the government lifted restrictions limiting
new passports to students or to persons going abroad for
official business or emergency medical treatment. At the same
time it reduced the validity of newly issued passports from
five to two years. In June, the previous government issued a
decree authorizing the Minister of Internal Affairs to cancel
any passport for specific reasons including the "public
interest." There are no reports that this decree has been
applied. Nigerians continue to travel abroad in large numbers
and many thousands are studying abroad. Exit visas are not
required to leave the country.
There has been no forced resettlement of Nigerian citizens,
but there was a mass expulsion of foreign citizens in 1985.
In mid-March, the government ordered illegal aliens to
regularize their status or leave the country by May 10. As in
1983, the government cited illegal employment of aliens and
the high crime rate as reasons for the measure. An estimated
700,000 persons were affected, and, according to the Ministry
of the Interior, more than half of this number actually left.
To fa.cilitate the movement of the aliens, Nigeria opened its
land borders for one week. Lengthy administrative procedures,
lack of coordination with neighboring countries, and
inadequate transport resulted in an estimated 25,000 persons
being caught without adequate food, water, shelter, or
sanitary facilities at the Benin-Nigerian border when it
closed again May 10. According to press accounts, several
aliens were killed when the police moved in to quell a riot at
the border camp before the aliens were moved to the Lagos
airport transit camp. The government denied that any deaths
had occurred.
The previous government's expulsion order did not pertain to
an estimated 240,000 persons who had moved into northern
Nigeria to escape the effects of the severe Sahelian drought
in Chad and Niger. Nor did the measure affect bona fide
refugees. Nigerian law and practice permit temporary refuge
and asylum in Nigeria for political refugees from other
countries. Nigeria supports and cooperates with the work of
the Lagos office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees .
No known penalties have been levied on Nigerians who have
emigrated, settled abroad, or acquired another nationality.
However, Nigeria does not recognize dual nationality, and
naturalization in another country does not release Nigerians
from Nigerian laws.
Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens
to Change Their Government
The Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) , a 28-member group of
military officers headed by President Babangida, is the
highest political authority in Nigeria and the principal
decisionmaking body in the Government. It replaced the
defunct Supreme Military Council (SMC) of the overthrown
government. There is no legislative body, and political
parties are prohibited. The AFRC promulgates all laws by
decree, and all decrees a: -s exempt from challenge in any court
of law. The President appoints a federal cabinet, currently
comprised of 22 military and civilian ministers in almost
equal numbers, which presides over the executive departments.
Military governors head the 19 state governments. Each state
has an executive council of military and police officers and
some civilian commissioners. Together with the President, the
19 state governors constitute a National Council of States.
The new Government announced in October that in 1986 it would
present a political plan for the future governance of the
country, but it has made no explicit statements about
returning Nigeria to civilian rule or holding elections within
a multiparty framework as occurred in 1979 and 1983.
Although no formal political structures exist to allow popular
input into political decisionmaking, the new Government has
stated that it intends to govern in the interest of the people
and has taken steps to solicit popular opinion on crucial
issues. For example, the Government threw open to public
debate the question of whether Nigeria should accept an
International Monetary Fund (IMF) stabilization agreement.
The public debate was conducted primarily in the media, in
forums of Nigeria's multitude of professional organizations
and associations, and before a specially constituted
government panel. Nigeria's foreign policy and its future
political system will be debated in a similar manner in 1986.
The composition of the current Government reflects greater
ethnic and religious diversity than any government in the
recent past. However, there are currently no women on the
AFRC or in the federal cabinet, although some women serve as
commissioners in state governments.
Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and
Nongovernmental Investigations of Alleged Violations
of Human Rights
Even during a period which has seen the suspension of
democratic government and the conduct of extrajudicial trials
held in secret, Nigeria remained a relatively open society.
Amnesty International maintains an office in Lagos and
circulates a monthly newsletter. Its annual human rights
reports receive prominent coverage in the press, including its
1985 report.
The human rights committee of the Nigerian Bar Association
(NBA) monitors the domestic human rights situation and has
consistently gone on record against human rights abuses. It
spoke out against the creation of military and special
tribunals to try civilians, criticizing their composition and
their secrecy, and has called on NBA members to boycott those
trials chaired by military men instead of trained judges. The
Government has not taken action against the organization for
this stand. In fact, the newly appointed Attorney General and
Minister of Justice is the ex-chairman of the NBA human rights
committee.
The Amnesty International 1985 report (covering 1984) inter
alia expressed concern that political prisoners were tried by
tribunals using procedures which fell short of internationally
recognized standards. It also noted that many of the 111 or
more people executed in 1984 had been convicted by tribunals
which did not permit any judicial appeal. Freedom House rates
Nigeria "not free."
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL SITUATION
Nigeria's population is estimated at 100 million. With 47
percent of the population currently under 15 years of age and
an estimated growth rate of 3 . 2 percent per year, the total
population may double within the next 20 years. The World
Bank estimated 1983 per capita gross national product (GNP) at
$770. This is a drop of almost $100 from 1982, reflecting the
general economic downturn and population increases. The
figure has probably continued to decline. The per capita GNP
figure can also be misleading, as oil exports account for most
of the country's revenue, and a large part of the rural
population is only marginally involved in Nigeria's cash
economy.
In the past three years, Nigerians have had to adjust to
reduced petroleum revenues, steep inflation, and a decline in
economic activity. Particularly affected has been the
capital, Lagos, where inadec[uate facilities for water,
electricity, housing, and other services have been
overwhelmed. Poor urban dwellers face high unemployment,
squalid living conditions, rising costs, and serious crime.
Nevertheless, the fruits of development, such as road
networks, public health facilities, public school systems,
airports, electrification, and mass communications, are more
accessible to urban dwellers than to the rural majority who
are still dependent on agricultural production.
There is virtually no starvation in Nigeria. Although
economic difficulties continue to create periodic shortages of
imported foodstuffs, good rains in 1985 are likely to produce
bumper crops in some areas following several years of poor
harvests. The World Bank estimates that the average Nigerian
receives 98 percent of daily nutritional requirements.
Nevertheless, as in most developing countries, the possibility
of malnutrition still exists and was reported in northern
Nigeria before the harvest. Life expectancy at birth is 50
years, while infant mortality is estimated by the World Bank
at 135 per 1,000 live births. The adult literacy rate was
estimated at 34 percent in 1980. The World Bank estimated
that primary school enrollment in 1979 was 88 percent of the
relevant age group.
A 1984 decision to reduce the number of educational facilities
at all levels and to impose fees and abolish subsidies at some
levels is also reflective of the policy of the new
Government. Five federal universities and all private
universities have been closed while plans for additional state
universities have been dropped. Many primary and secondary
schools have been closed or merged, while polytechnical
colleges have been reduced in number. Almost all states
require school fees for secondary school students, and federal
subsidies for room and board have been abolished. It is too
soon to tell whether these measures have had any significant
impact on enrollment figures.
The 1974 labor decree forbids industrial and commercial
employment of children under 15, and restricts other child
labor to home-based agricultural or domestic work. The decree
also provides a number of special health and safety provisions
to protect young and female workers, in addition to general
provisions with respect to hours of work and occupational
health and safety. It allows the apprenticeship of youth
13-15 under specified conditions, including a written contract
approved by a government labor officer.
Normal working hours in commerce and industry are 40 hours
weekly, with 2 to 4 weeks annual leave. Nigeria's minimum
hourly wage for commerce and industry is about $1.40, one of
the highest in Africa. Employers must compensate injured
workers and dependent survivors of those fatally injured in
industrial accidents. The 1974 Labor Decree and the Factories
Act provide for government establishment and enforcement of
occupational health and safety standards under the Ministry of
Employment, Labour, and Productivity.
Women in Nigeria have always had economic power and have
exerted influence in the society through women's councils or
through their family connections. There has been a dramatic
increase in the number of women who have university degrees
and who have become professionals, including teachers,
lawyers, doctors, judges, senior government officials, media
figures, and business executives. The new Government has
named the first woman Vice Chancellor of one of the country's
universities. But the status of women remains ambiguous.
Despite a degree of economic independence, women suffer legal
discrimination, experience social inferiority, have virtually
no representation in the political arena, and are commonly
discriminated against in employment. The pattern and specific
features of discrimination against women vary according to the
ethnic and religious diversity of Nigeria's vast population.
In some states husbands can prevent their wives from obtaining
employment or passports. In many states a widow cannot
inherit her husband's property, which in the absence of
children usually reverts to the husband's family. Women do
not receive equal pay for equal work. Male professionals
receive fringe benefits not extended to their female
counterparts. Female circumcision, which has never become a
major public issue, is still practiced in many areas.
There is no systematic discrimination among Nigeria's diverse
ethnic and religious groups, although tensions among them do
exist and tradition imposes considerable pressure on
individual government officials to favor members of their own
ethnic, regional, or religious group. Laws do not favor one
group over another. To the contrary, there is generally a
conscious effort to strike a balance among different groups in
key governmental positions and decisions.
