9. August 2023

Die folgenden Ausschnitte aus ausgewählten Quellen enthalten Informationen zu oben genannter Fragestellung (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 9. August 2023):

Allgemeines zur Lage alleinstehender Frauen und Mädchen

Amnesty International (AI) ist eine internationale regierungsunabhängige Menschenrechtsorganisation mit Hauptsitz in London.

·      AI – Amnesty International: Amnesty International Report 2022/23; Zur weltweiten Lage der Menschenrechte; Jordanien 2022, 28. März 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2094481.html

„Rechte von Frauen und Mädchen

Im Februar 2022 änderte der Senat Artikel 6 der Verfassung dahingehend, dass jordanische Männer und Frauen vor dem Gesetz gleich sind, und verbot die ‚Diskriminierung in Bezug auf ihre Rechte und Pflichten aus Gründen der ethnischen Herkunft, Sprache oder Religion‘. Es wurden jedoch keine Schritte unternommen, um Gesetze oder Verordnungen mit der Verfassungsänderung in Einklang zu bringen. So benötigten Frauen weiterhin die Erlaubnis eines männlichen Vormunds, wenn sie heiraten oder mit ihren Kindern ins Ausland reisen wollten, und liefen Gefahr, festgenommen zu werden, wenn sie aus ihrem Zuhause flohen.“ (AI, 28. März 2023)

Das US Department of State (USDOS) ist das US-amerikanische Außenministerium.

·      USDOS – US Department of State: 2022 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Jordan, 20. März 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2089239.html 

„Women may file complaints of rape or physical abuse with certain NGOs or directly with judicial authorities. However, due to social taboos and degrading treatment at police stations, gender-based crimes often went unreported. NGOs also highlighted that there were no official figures on the prevalence of violence against unmarried girls and women aged 50 years and over. […]

Advocates raised concerns regarding legal, social, and cultural barriers to services for unmarried women and access problems for women and girls with disabilities, including consent for hysterectomies. Human rights groups raised concerns regarding the treatment and penalties faced by unmarried women who give birth at hospitals, including hospital staff’s reporting them to authorities. An NGO reported that unmarried women risked forced separation and institutionalization of their children by the government. […]

Another NGO reported unmarried survivors of rape who became pregnant faced difficulties gaining access to safe delivery and establishing legal status for their children due to legal and social barriers.

Adolescent girls and unmarried women who became pregnant were routinely transferred to government-funded shelters where they could receive educational services, although the quality varied. Access to sexual and reproductive health services was generally more challenging for women and adolescent girls in rural settings. Social norms prevented underaged girls who became pregnant from attending school.” (USDOS, 20. März 2023, Section 6)

Das Büro des Hohen Flüchtlingskommissars der Vereinten Nationen (UNHCR) ist eine Behörde der Vereinten Nationen mit dem Mandat zum Schutz und zur Unterstützung von Flüchtlingen und zur Hilfestellung bei freiwilliger Rückkehr, lokaler Integration und Neuansiedelung in einem Drittland.

·      UNHCR – UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Jordan GBV IMS Task Force; Annual Report 2021, 30. August 2022
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2078718/Final+GBVIMS+2021+Report_+English.pdf

„’Denial of resources’ is the third most reported type of GBV [Gender-Based Violence]. Women and girls are increasingly reporting incidents of denial of resources, opportunity and services mainly perpetrated by their husbands and male relatives. Male perpetrators prevent women from having access to citizenship or documentation. Women are also excluded from decision-making within the family or around the use of cash assistance, while others also report that their husbands would confiscate their salaries (employers are also reported for withholding part of the salary). Some survivors shared that their husbands/male relatives would prevent them from accessing reproductive health and mental health services. In addition, women saw their inheritance rights curtailed as well as their rights to alimony or custody. Finally, women reported being denied opportunities to work as well as access to women empowerment activities or education. Controlling behaviors reported by girls include denial of access to school and tertiary education, limitations of movement and social contacts as well as access to reproductive health services for unmarried girls. Husbands or male relatives also prevent girls from attending girls’ empowerment activities and other services. Denial of resources is therefore normalized within communities, women and girls are often unaware these incidents constitute gender-based violence.” (UNHCR, 30. August 2022, S. 7)

Human Rights Watch (HRW) ist eine internationale Nichtregierungsorganisation mit Sitz in New York City, die sich für den weltweiten Schutz der Menschenrechte einsetzt.

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2022 - Jordan, 13. Jänner 2022
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2068595.html

„Jordan’s personal status code remains discriminatory, despite amendments in 2019. Women need the permission of a male guardian to marry for the first time, and marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men are not recognized. Women cannot travel abroad with their children, as men can, without the permission of their child’s father or male guardian or a judge. While women can travel outside the country without needing permission, authorities sometimes comply with requests from male guardians to bar their unmarried adult daughters, wives, and children from leaving the country. Authorities also arrest women reported as ‘absent’ for fleeing their home by their male guardians under the Crime Prevention Law.” (HRW, 13. Jänner 2022)

Die Gender-Based-Violence (GBV) Sub Working Group ist ein Koordinierungsgremium mit dem Ziel, die Prävention und Reaktion auf geschlechtsspezifische Gewalt in Notsituationen zu stärken.

·      GBV Sub Working Group – Jordan: Gender Based Violence Risk Assessment for East Amman, Oktober 2021
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/GBV%20Risk%20Assessment%20Report_Amman.pdf

„Community members spoke of sexual violence, mostly referring to the prevalence of sexual harassment in the streets and public areas and mentioning sexual abuse and rape risks outside of the home. They unanimously reported that the top risk facing women and girls outside of their homes is sexual harassment. Findings from this risk assessment show that vulnerable groups at heightened risk of GBV [Gender-Based-Violence] in Amman are women and girls in general, and in particular refugees especially non-Syrian refugees; and women living without men (widowed, separated, divorced, head of household.” (GBV Sub Working Group, Oktober 2021, S. 6)

Im nachfolgend angeführten Bericht zu außerehelichem Geschlechtsverkehr, Ehe und Schwangerschaft in Jordanien von Amnesty International (AI) finden sich unter anderem Informationen zur Meldung außerehelicher Schwangerschaften durch Krankenhäuser an die Polizei, zur Inhaftierung unverheirateter, schwangerer Frauen sowie zur erzwungenen Abnahme neugeborener Kinder unverheirateter Frauen:

·      AI -Amnesty International: Imprisoned Women, Stolen Children – Policing Sex, Marriage and Pregnancy in Jordan, 23. Oktober 2019
https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde16/0831/2019/en/

Lebensgrundlage von Frauen und Mädchen

·      AI – Amnesty International: Amnesty International Report 2022/23; Zur weltweiten Lage der Menschenrechte; Jordanien 2022, 28. März 2023
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2094481.html

„Nach Angaben der Weltbank hatte Jordanien weiterhin mit einer hohen Arbeitslosenquote zu kämpfen, insbesondere unter Frauen und Jugendlichen.“ (AI, 28. März 2023)

Gender And Adolescence: Global Evidence (GAGE) ist eine von 2015 bis 2025 angelegte Studie, die das Leben von 20.000 Jugendlichen in sechs Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen in Afrika (Äthiopien und Ruanda), Asien (Bangladesch und Nepal) und im Nahen Osten (Jordanien und Libanon) verfolgt.

·      GAGE - Gender And Adolescence: Global Evidence: Adolescent lives in Jordan: what are we learning from longitudinal evidence?, März 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/5080288c-a0a9-4ea5-8e7a-5d4f4eba9568/Adolescent-lives-in-Jordan-what-are-we-learning-from-longitudinal-evidence.pdf

„Although girls are more likely to complete secondary school and university than boys, they have extremely limited access to the labour market due to discriminatory gender norms. Because unpaid domestic and care work is seen as the responsibility of girls and women – which reduces the time they might spend engaged in paid work – and because many families see girls’ (and women’s) engagement in paid work as unacceptable to broader notions of femininity, Jordan has one of the lowest rates of women’s labour force participation in the world.” (GAGE, März 2022, S. 2)

Zoe H. Robbin ist Forscherin in Amman, Jordanien, wo sie sich im Rahmen verschiedener Projekte mit der Stärkung der Rolle der Frau, der Regierungsführung und der Bildung in der arabischen Region befasst.

·      Robbin, Zoe H.: Women’s labor force participation and COVID-19 in Jordan, MEI, 1. Februar 2022
https://www.mei.edu/publications/womens-labor-force-participation-and-covid-19-jordan

„Jordan has the lowest rate of women’s economic participation of any country not at war. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), the kingdom’s female labor force participation rate is below 15%, while that of men is about 60%. This is lower than rates of female labor force participation in neighboring Lebanon (23%), Saudi Arabia (22%), and the West Bank and Gaza (18%). […]

The low level of labor force participation among Jordanian women has long confounded policymakers, analysts, and researchers, and it has persisted despite women’s impressive educational outcomes. Jordan has the highest rate of female literacy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), at nearly 98%, outperforming Israel, the UAE [United Arab Emirates], and Kuwait, among others. Furthermore, more women than men now graduate from Jordanian universities. Despite having one of the most educated female populations in the region, Jordan’s female unemployment rate is nearly double that of men (about 25% for women versus 12.5% for men).

Barriers to participation

Social norms play a role in Jordan’s low rate of female labor force participation. In 2018, a survey by the World Bank found that 96% of women and men in the country agree that it is acceptable for women to work. When asked, however, about the specific conditions under which women working would be permissible, both women and men pointed to several constraints: Nearly half of those surveyed considered it unacceptable for women to work if her job required her to leave her children with relatives; over 60% considered it unacceptable for women to work alongside men in a mixed workplace; and over 70% considered it unacceptable for women to take a job that required them to return in the evening after 5:00 PM. As Doàa Mohamed Refaat, a business consultant with EY who specializes in supporting and training small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the MENA region, explained, ‘Almost no family in Jordan would accept that a woman is going home at a late hour or that she is prioritizing work over family. These are the constraints that women are facing.’

In addition to these social expectations, practical factors and safety concerns such as the inaccessibility of secure transportation limit women’s ability to participate in the workforce. In one survey, 47% of women reported turning down job opportunities due to a lack of efficient and affordable public transportation. Limited childcare options also prevent women from working outside the home. Jordan has attempted to address this issue by requiring companies with employees who have a combined total of 15 or more children under the age of five to have an onsite daycare. However, the lack of clarity and enforcement around this rule have limited its efficacy. Jordanian women also lack robust protection from sexual harassment that occurs at work.” (Robbin, 1. Februar 2022)

Soua'd Mansour Ghaith ist Wissenschaftlerin an der Abteilung für Bildungspsychologie und Beratung an der Fakultät für Bildungswissenschaften der Hashemite University in Jordanien.

·      Mansour Ghaith, Soua'd et al.: Perceived social support among widowed women in Jordan: An exploratory study, Vomen’s Studies International Forum, Vol. 80, May – June 2020, 27. April 2020
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539519306053 (Login erforderlich)

„This study sought to explore the level of perceived social support among widowed women in Jordan and to identify the statistically significant differences in perceived social support due to particular demographic variables (widows' age, number and age stages of children, educational level, place of residence and Husband's death years). Results revealed that the level of perceived social support from family, friends and significant others among widowed women participated in the study was moderate. […]

This result shows an aspect of Jordanian society which adopts a positive attitude toward widow after losing her husband, by providing support from family members, friends, neighbours, colleagues especially days and months after the funeral. Unfortunately, most of them return to their routine and responsibilities, leaving the widow with just a little attention, support and care (Abu Darwish et al., 2016). Meanwhile, it is expected that some of the family member, friends, and significant others continue providing support for a long time (Sherawi, 2012) but, it seems that amount mentioned above of social support neither satisfactory nor sufficient for widows based on the moderate level they reported in this study.

This moderate level of social support may mean that the amount of social support through time unstable or inconstant. The moderate level of social support means that the level of social support from widows' perspective is not low, but not high, and this may reflect that they are not satisfied with the social support provided to them according to Worden (2009). In addition to that, their social support does not meet their expectations of what they classify as high support, indicating that widowed women still in need for more support from family, friends, and significant others in their lives (Mubark, 2008).” (Mansour Ghaith, 27. April 2020, S. 5)

EuroMed Rights, im Jahr 1997 als Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network (EMHRN) gegründet, ist eine Nichtregierungsorganisation mit dem Ziel, die Kooperation und den Dialog in und zwischen Ländern auf beiden Seiten des Mittelmeeres zu fördern.

·      EuroMed Rights: Jordan: Situation Report on Violence against Women, März 2018
https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Factsheet-VAW-Jordan-EN.pdf

„Single mothers represent yet another group vulnerable to discrimination and violence, due to social stigma and family pressure. A woman who gives birth out of wedlock can be held in administrative detention for years under the pretext of protecting her life from danger. She normally loses custody of her child, who is registered without his parents’ names and taken to an orphanage. Although mothers enjoy the right to custody over their children in case of divorce, this right is subject to severe limitations, including travel restrictions preventing women from travelling with their children in the absence of the father’s approval, even if for work purposes or to return to their home country. In addition, mothers can lose their right to custody in a number of ways, including in case of remarriage.” (EuroMed Rights, März 2018, S. 5)

Semiray Kasoolu ist Forscherin am Center for International Development's Growth an der Harvard Kennedy School in Cambridge, Massachusetts in den Vereinigten Staaten.

·      Kasoolu, Semiray et al.: Female Labor in Jordan: A Systematic Approach to the Exclusion Puzzle, Center for International Development at Harvard University (Hg.), Oktober 2019
https://growthlab.hks.harvard.edu/files/growthlab/files/2019-10-cid-wp-365-female-labor-jordan.pdf

„In this paper, we have systematically explored the problem of female exclusion from the labor market in Jordan. Our aim was to leverage existing research and perform rigorous analysis using new data resources, through a comprehensive framework, to deconstruct the problem and identify the binding constraints underlying this puzzling outcome. […]

Researching Jordan’s very low female employment rate yields a narrative that reflects the depth of female exclusion from the labor market. By 2018, the number of women employed in Jordan as a share of the total working-age population was the fifth lowest in the world (10.9%). Women’s employment ratios have improved only marginally over time, despite significant improvements in their educational outcomes. Our first descriptive finding is that this low employment rate is actually the result of two distinct problems that impact different segments of the Jordanian female population. Jordanian women with low levels of education (high school and lower) participate in the labor force at extraordinarily low rates compared to men. Meanwhile, Jordanian women with high levels of education (university and above) participate at rates similar to men, but face much higher unemployment.

For women with low levels of schooling, we find strong evidence that cultural values constrain female labor market participation, but we also report significant evidence suggesting that social norms alone do not explain the entire problem. Survey evidence identifies important pathways of cultural influences on the low participation rate and on reasons for women dropping out of the labor force, notably after marriage. However, geographical patterns of participation are inconsistent with cultural explanations of the problem. By observing labor market participation rates of Jordanian women in the United States, we likewise see that culture can only explain part of the problem. As an upper bound, their participation rates suggest that women at low levels of education could participate at rates 5-10 times higher than they currently are, while holding culture largely constant. We also find strong evidence that poor quality and availability of transportation constrains female labor force participation, but only for those with low levels of education (less than high school). This segment of the population – which still represents around half of working-age women – is most negatively impacted by their reliance on poor quality public transportation and long commuting times, as they likely can’t afford safer, faster, and more private modes of transport. These two factors – culture and transportation – mutually reinforce each other, and together represent the most important causes of low labor force participation among Jordanian women with low levels of education.

We do not find strong signals that the availability and cost of childcare is a binding constraint to female labor force participation. However, limited data availability and quality reduce the variety and strength of tests that can be applied to identify nuanced ways that childcare issues may affect participation. Therefore, we recommend further study of the childcare market in Jordan. A market study of childcare in Jordan would be a particularly promising approach to take, as it could identify both latent opportunities for the private sector to increase the supply of childcare services and any market failures that the GOJ [Government of Jordania] could address to improve the market for high-quality childcare services.

For women with high levels of education, we explored whether high rates of unemployment were caused more by issues on the supply side (having to do with the female labor force) or on the demand side (having to with employment opportunities). On the whole, we find that the supply-side is healthy while the demand-side is significantly skewed. The resulting mismatch between a growing pool of highly educated women and an undiversified private sector that discriminates against women results in a pattern of highly educated women queuing for jobs in a narrow set of sectors (health, education and the broader public sector) or emigrating for work. These few sectors cannot possibly expand fast enough to match the rate at which highly educated women are entering the labor force.“ (Kasoolu et al., S. 45-46)

Allgemeine Informationen zur Lage von Frauen und Mädchen in Jordanien finden Sie in folgenden Quellen:

·      USDOS – US Department of State: 2022 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Jordan, 20. März 2023, Section 6
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2089239.html

·      Information and Research Center – King Hussein Foundation et al.: Alternative Report on the Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Jordan, CRC (Hg.), Juni 2022
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2082586/INT_CRC_NGO_JOR_49386_E.docx 

·      GAGE - Gender And Adolescence: Global Evidence: Adolescent lives in Jordan: what are we learning from longitudinal evidence?, März 2022
https://reliefweb.int/attachments/5080288c-a0a9-4ea5-8e7a-5d4f4eba9568/Adolescent-lives-in-Jordan-what-are-we-learning-from-longitudinal-evidence.pdf

·      Gender-Based-Violence (GBV) Sub Working Group – Jordan: Gender Based Violence Risk Assessment for East Amman, Oktober 2021
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/GBV%20Risk%20Assessment%20Report_Amman.pdf

·      FES – Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung: Years of Struggle – The Women’s Movement in Jordan, Juni 2021
https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/amman/18192-20211124.pdf