Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Ottawa

1. Overview

Sources indicate that domestic violence in Russia is "pervasive" (RFE/RL 19 Sept. 2010), "widespread" (AI Feb. 2013a, 10), or a "major problem" (US 19 Apr. 2013, 38; Russia Press Digest 4 July 2012). According to the Prague-based publication Transitions Online, which focuses on post-communist countries in Europe and the former Soviet Union, there is "almost routine violence" in Russian families (12 Mar. 2012). Several sources describe Russian society as patriarchal (UN 16 Aug. 2010, para. 22; TO 12 Mar. 2012; RFE/RL 19 Sept. 2010). Domestic violence is reportedly viewed as a private issue (UN 16 Aug. 2010, para. 22; Reuters 20 Aug. 2013) or as something "normal" (TO 12 Mar. 2012; RFE/RL 19 Sept. 2010).

Sources report that the number of women who die annually in Russia as a result of domestic violence ranges from 10,000 (Reuters 20 Aug. 2013; RFE/RL 28 Jan. 2013; AI Feb. 2013b, 7) to 14,000 women (ANNA July 2010, 6; BBC 28 Feb. 2013; US 19 Apr. 2013, 38). The 14,000 figure reportedly originates from the Russian Ministry of Interior [or Internal Affairs] in 2008 (ibid.; ANNA July 2010, 6). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, the director of the Moscow-based NGO ANNA National Centre for the Prevention of Violence said that there are no recent official statistics provided by the Ministry of Interior on their website, but that the trends from 2010 to 2013 remain similar to the previously reported time period (23 Oct. 2013).

The Moscow News reports that, according to data released by the Federal State Statistics Service, 40 percent of women in Russia are subject to verbal abuse and 20 percent are subject to physical violence by their husbands, but further details about the data were not provided (29 May 2013). Two sources report that, based on law enforcement statistics, 40 percent of all violent crimes in Russia occur in the family (Reuters 20 Aug. 2013; ANNA July 2010, 6). The BBC reports that 600,000 women in Russia are annually facing physical and verbal domestic violence "according to estimates, based on studies in a few selected regions conducted by the Russian interior ministry" (28 Feb. 2013).

An alternative report to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which was prepared by a group of experts on domestic violence led by ANNA, indicates that statistics on crimes of domestic violence are "fragmentary, difficult to obtain, or simply do not exist" (ANNA July 2010, 6). Amnesty International (AI) notes that authorities do not keep centralized disaggregated statistics related to domestic violence, and so the "true scale of domestic violence against women in Russia remains unknown" (June 2010, 12). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an associate professor of political science and women's studies at Brooklyn College, City University of New York (CUNY), who has conducted long-term research and has had work published on violence against women in Russia, similarly stated that there are no credible statistics regarding rates of domestic violence between 2010-2013 and "[t]here is no system for collecting credible data on incidence or number of cases reported to the police, prosecuted or convictions" (Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013).

In 2010, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) expressed concern that violence against women "in all its forms" has increased (UN 16 Aug. 2010, para. 22). However, according to Russia's 2013 state report to the UN Human Rights Council, violent crimes against women have decreased since 2009 (Russia 6 Feb. 2013, para. 166). Russian authorities indicated that there were 222,543 cases of violence against women recorded in 2009; 191,181 in 2010 and 170,281 in 2011(ibid.).

2. Legislation

Sources indicate that Russia has not adopted legislation to combat domestic violence (AI Feb. 2013a, 10; ANNA July 2010, 9; RFE/RL 28 Jan. 2013). Domestic violence is not mentioned specifically in the criminal code (The Moscow News 21 Jan. 2013; ANNA July 2010, 9; US 19 Apr. 2013, 38). There is also no legal definition of domestic violence (ibid., UN 11 Dec. 2012).

Sources indicate that draft legislation has been developed to address domestic violence (ANNA 23 Oct. 2013; The Moscow News 29 May 2013; AI Feb. 2013b, 7). According to The Moscow News, the new bill was introduced to the state Duma in May 2013 and includes both judicial and non-judicial measures to protect domestic violence victims, including multiple sanctions against perpetrators, public prosecutions of offenders, preventions against harassing the victim, and a budget for aiding victims (29 May 2013). According to the Associate Professor, there is a working group on violence in the family in the lower house of parliament, which is working on the introduction of legislation to address domestic violence (Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013). She said that the draft legislation calls for increased social support for victims, but does not include protection orders (ibid.). The Director of ANNA said the bill was developed by the working group under the Ministry of Labour and Social Development, but that there has not been a hearing in parliament yet (23 Oct. 2013). Sources indicate that two other draft bills to address domestic violence were introduced since 1991, but they were not passed (Reuters 20 Aug. 2013; Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013)

Sources report that there is no system for providing restraining or protection orders to victims of domestic violence in Russia (RFE/RL 19 Sept. 2010; ANNA July 2010, 13; Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013).

According to ANNA, the criminal code provides "only partial protection" to victims of domestic violence and is "ineffective" for addressing domestic violence (ANNA July 2010, 9, 14). The same source notes that under the current legislation it is "extremely difficult" to prove domestic violence, including physical abuse (ibid., 9). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), an organization of journalists reporting the news "in 21 countries where a free press is banned by the government or not fully established" (n.d.), also indicates that the current law provides "little recourse" to victims of domestic violence (28 Jan. 2013). The Moscow News reports that since there is no law addressing domestic violence, offenders are instead prosecuted under other articles of the Criminal Code, often resulting in either lighter sentences or not being tried (29 May 2013).

According to the US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012, rape is punishable by 3-6 years imprisonment for a single offender and 4-10 years for gang rape, with higher sentences if the victim was underage or died as a result of the assault (19 Apr. 2013, 38).

3. State Protection
3.1 Government Efforts

According to ANNA, there is neither a "systemic approach" at the government level nor a federal public policy to address domestic violence (July 2010, 4, 15). Similarly, AI states that there is no "comprehensive programme" by the state to combat domestic violence (June 2010, 13). Both sources also note that there is no national action plan for the issue (ANNA July 2010, 16; AI June 2010, 13). ANNA reported in 2010 that the Commission on Women in the Russian Federation (under the Deputy Minister) and the Commission on Women, Family and Demographics (under the President) were both suspended in earlier years (July 2010, 15). The Associate Professor said that no new government programs to combat domestic violence have been initiated between 2010 and 2013 (22 Oct. 2013). ANNA also indicated that the government does not have any federal programs to prevent sexual violence (July 2010, 21).

3.2 Police

Several sources indicate that police are reluctant or refuse to intervene in situations of domestic violence (Freedom House 2013; ANNA July 2010, 18; US 19 Apr. 2013, 38). A lawyer quoted by a Russian media source explained that because there is no specific mention of domestic violence in the criminal code, police may "ignore disturbance calls" from victims (Russia Press Digest 4 July 2012). Similarly, Country Reports 2012 states that sometimes the police don't respond to domestic violence calls until the victim's life is in danger (US 19 Apr. 2013, 38).

Sources report that many police officers view domestic violence as a "family" or "private" matter (Freedom House 2013; ANNA July 2010, 4) or "personal" affair (Russian Press Digest 4 July 2012; ibid.). Reuters reports that Russian police often advise victims of domestic violence to return home and reconcile with their husbands (20 Aug. 2013). Country Reports 2012 states that police are often unwilling to register complaints of domestic violence (US 19 Apr. 2013, 38).

According to ANNA, victims of domestic violence have faced "extreme difficulty" getting help from the police and some police react to their cases with "prejudice," "stereotypes" and "personal attitudes," in the absence of set procedures (ANNA July 2010, 8, 18). The UN Committee Against Torture expressed concern at the low number of complaints and investigations into cases of domestic violence, as well as the fact that women are often pressured to participate in a reconciliation process if pursuing a criminal investigation into domestic violence (11 Dec. 2012). According to the Associate Professor, the police are "not effective" in assisting victims and are reluctant to pursue the cases through existing assault laws (22 Oct. 2013).

Russian state authorities indicate that training seminars on domestic violence have been provided to police officers and to students at police academies, but provide no further details on the training (Russia 6 Feb. 2013, para. 168). AI reports that NGOs conducted training on domestic violence for police in conjunction with police academies in some regions of Russia, including the Saratov region and the Republic of Mari El (June 2010, 13). Similarly, the Associate Professor said that police in some regions received some training through foreign-funded projects (22 Oct. 2013).

Country Reports 2012 indicates that the police do not consider spousal or acquaintance rape a priority and do not encourage reporting such crimes (US 19 Apr. 2013, 38). ANNA observed that the police display prejudice, "hostility and suspicion" towards victims of sexual violence, sometimes accusing them of provoking the violence or of fabricating the charges (July 2010, 26, 29). ANNA also said that the police lack special training in handling cases of sexual violence and often do not refer victims of sexual violence to go for a medical forensic exam (July 2010, 28-29).

3.3 Judiciary

Sources indicate that most cases of domestic violence are brought as "private" prosecutions (BBC 28 Feb. 2013: ANNA July 2010, 10). ANNA explains that this means that the victim is required "to act as a prosecutor, to present evidence, to formulate the charges and to seek the conviction of the guilty party" and that ordinary citizens do not have the legal background to successfully present their cases (ibid., 11). The same source expressed the opinion that the private prosecution of most domestic violence cases leaves the victims "without adequate state protection" because they do not have an adequate legal background or access to legal aid (ibid., 14). The Associate Professor noted that courts are "not effective" in addressing domestic violence and in the absence of assistance from the police and courts, some victims pursue cases through notary publics, whom they must pay for representation (22 Oct. 2013).

According to the BBC, criminal charges can only be filed against the perpetrator for "serious or severe" injuries, or in cases of death, and that the majority of cases do not qualify under "criminal" proceedings (28 Feb. 2013). The Russian Press Digest states that opening criminal cases against perpetrators of domestic violence is "a complicated and lengthy procedure" (4 July 2012).

Sources indicate that the majority of domestic violence cases are either dismissed on technical grounds or because of reconciliation between the two parties (ANNA July 2010, 11; US 19 Apr. 2013, 38). Country Reports 2012 states that cases are often transferred to a reconciliation process conducted by a justice of peace whose focus is on family preservation, rather than prosecuting the perpetrator (ibid.). ANNA observes that the judiciary sometimes displays prejudice towards victims of domestic violence (July 2010, 19). Reuters reports that judges and prosecutors often advise victims of domestic violence to return home and reconcile with their husbands, and also indicates that only 3 percent of domestic violence cases end with a court sentence (20 Aug. 2013). While this figure could not be corroborated among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate, the UN Committee Against Torture expressed concern about the small number of prosecutions of domestic violence cases (11 Dec. 2012, para. 14).

Quoting data from the Supreme Court, Country Reports 2012 indicates that 4,321 rape cases went to court in 2010 and 3,642 in 2011 (US 19 Apr. 2013, 38). Information on the number of convictions could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

Sources state that some doctors will not assist victims of sexual violence because they do not want to testify in court (US 19 Apr. 2013, 37; ANNA July 2010, 28) or deal with the legal system (ibid.).

4. Support Services

According to RFE/RL, Russia "lacks the infrastructure" to support victims of domestic violence and many women have nowhere to go to escape their abusers (28 Jan. 2013). Similarly, the Moscow News states that victims face "a distinct lack of alternatives to their violent relationships" (29 May 2013).

4.1 Government Shelters

The 2010 UN CEDAW report notes that Russia does not have a national program to provide shelters for victims of domestic violence and that the few shelters that exist are "extremely limited" in their capacity to assist victims (16 Aug. 2010, para. 22). AI has similarly expressed concern at the "alarming lack of shelters" (Feb. 2013b, 7). ANNA also notes that the number of shelters is not "adequate" (July 2010, 16).

In their report submitted to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Russian authorities state that there are "23 shelters for women and underage children that offer emergency assistance, including welfare, medical, legal and social adaptation and rehabilitation services and psychological support" in the country (Russia, 27 Aug. 2012, Para. 137). AI and ANNA also state that there are 23 state shelters for victims of domestic violence as of 2013 (Feb. 2013b, 7; 23 Oct. 2013). In a 2013 article, RFE/RL reports of 40 state shelters (28 Jan. 2013). AI and ANNA indicate that the 23 shelters are a fraction of over 3,000 small state-supported social service centres throughout Russia (AI Feb. 2013b, 7; ANNA July 2010, 8, 16). According to AI, some of these other small social service centres may provide some emergency support to victims of domestic violence, such as temporary shelter facilities (AI Feb. 2013b, 7). According to the Director of ANNA, women can stay for up to 6 months at the 23 shelters for victims of domestic violence, but not all of them allow children over the age of 14 years (ANNA 23 Oct. 2013). She noted that these shelters are funded by local municipalities for local residents, and that residence registration is required for access to the shelters (ibid.). Other sources similarly note that government-operated shelters are restricted to local residents who are officially registered within the particular region (AI Feb. 2013b, 7; Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013). According to the Associate Professor, state social services by law require registration in the specific region where the service is located, although the staff may try to accommodate others (ibid.).

Regarding government-operated shelters, the Associate Professor stated the following:

There are government shelters in many regions of Russia-around 140 according to the Health Committee of the State Duma--that sometimes take in victims of domestic violence, but to my knowledge, there are only a handful with staff trained to deal with domestic violence. There tend to be less than a dozen beds per shelter... They are shelters for short term [stays], from a month to six months. (ibid.)

According to the Associate Professor, the government shelters are for women "living in a crisis" or "in a difficult life situation" (Associate Professor 24 Oct. 2013). She explained that "[w]omen can go to these shelters for a couple of days or weeks, helping them escape violent relationships (or homelessness) but the goal of the social workers is typically to re-unite the family (ibid.). She said that none of the government shelters are specifically for domestic violence, but that some explicitly recognize domestic violence as a "crisis" situation, while others do not (ibid.).

4.1.1 Shelters in Moscow

Sources indicate that Moscow has one public shelter for victims of domestic violence (BBC 28 Feb. 2013; Reuters 20 Aug. 2013; Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013). AI states that the Moscow shelter provides space for approximately 12 women (Feb. 2013b, 7). Reuters reports that the shelter has 30 beds (Reuters 20 Aug. 2013). According to Reuters, the Moscow shelter, which is called "Nadezhda," provided services to 500 people in 2012 and its services include psychological therapy (ibid.). The BBC reports that women are allowed to stay at the Moscow shelter for up to 2 months (28 Feb. 2013). Sources report that only women with officially registered residences in Moscow can access the shelter (AI Feb. 2013b, 7; The Moscow News 21 Jan. 2013). ANNA reports that there is also a public shelter in the Moscow suburb of Khimki (28 Oct. 2013). The Associate Professor indicated that victims of domestic violence registered in Khimki can access the shelter (24 Oct. 2013).

4.1.2 Shelters in St. Petersburg

According to the Associate Professor, Saint Petersburg has one regional shelter and six municipal district shelters with a total of 85 beds (Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013). She said that domestic violence is recognized as a "difficult life situation" at these shelters, but that some of the staff focus on reconciliation (ibid.) and/or blame the victim for the violence (ibid. 24 Oct. 2013). According to the Director of ANNA, there are three shelters for victims of domestic violence in St. Petersburg (28 Oct. 2013). Further information about shelters in St. Petersburg could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

4.1.3 Shelters in Other Locations

Based on data collected by colleagues in the summer of 2013, the Associate Professor indicated that there are municipal or state shelters for women in crisis in the following parts of northwest Russia: Murmansk (7 beds); Petrozavodsk (7 beds); Syvtyvkar, in Komi (9 beds) and Sorgvala (5 beds) (Associate Professor 24 Oct. 2013). However, she noted that she is unsure how these shelters address situations of domestic violence (ibid.).

According to the Director of ANNA, in addition to the shelters in Moscow, Khimki and St. Petersburg, there are also state shelters for victims of domestic violence in Izhevsk, Yekaterinburg, Tomsk, Tyumen, Perm, Petrozavodsk, Murmansk, Saratov, Tula, Krasnodar, Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Chelyabinsk, Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, and two shelters in Barnaul (28 Oct. 2013). Further information on these state shelters could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.2 Services Provided by NGOs

According to the Director of ANNA, there are no NGO-operated shelters in Russia, but there are two current initiatives to open shelters in Pskov and Moscow (ANNA 23 Oct. 2013). She said that ANNA is working with the Orthodox Church to open a shelter in Moscow with ten beds (ibid.). The Moscow News reports that the Russian Orthodox Church has plans to open shelters throughout Russia, but did not provide details (29 May 2013).

The Associate Professor said that there may be one or two NGO-operated shelters in Russia, but that all the ones that she knew of have shut down (Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013). She noted that there is an NGO in St. Petersburg that advocates for victims of domestic violence that claims to offer 3-7 beds (ibid.). In addition, she said that there are a "handful" of other NGO crisis centres for victims of domestic violence, but that few offer many services due to a lack of resources (ibid.).

ANNA offers a nationwide telephone hotline for victims of domestic violence (ANNA 23 Oct. 2013; Associate Professor 22 Oct. 2013). According to ANNA's Director, the hotline is operational 12-hours/day (23 Oct. 2013).

In 2010, AI noted that local authorities in the Altai region assisted NGOs in setting up shelters and telephone hotlines for victims of domestic violence (June 2010, 13). Further information on the status of those services could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to ANNA's 2010 alternative report to CEDAW, there are some NGOs that provide services to victims of sexual violence, including hotlines and crisis centres, but prevention of sexual violence and assistance to victims is "almost non-existent" in Russia (July 2010, 22).

4.2.1 Impact of NGO Law

Sources indicate that legislation passed in 2012 requires all NGOs involved in "'political activities'" that receive foreign funding to register as "'foreign agents'" with the Justice Ministry, with noncompliance punishable by high fines and prison sentences (Freedom House 2013; HRHF 23 May 2013, 2; AI Feb. 2013b, 5). According to AI, the new law "introduces significant administrative hurdles for NGOs, undermines their financial viability and creates new opportunities for the authorities to subject independent civil society organizations to harassment and pressure" (ibid.). In a report to the UN Human Rights Council, the Human Rights House Foundation (HRHF), an NGO with special consultative status with the UN, said that in March 2013, state authorities began a large-scale campaign of NGO inspections that was done in an "invasive, disruptive and intimidating manner" (HRHF 23 May 2013, 3). According to HRHF, NGOs providing shelters to victims of domestic violence are among the NGOs targeted as "'foreign agents'" because many receive funding from abroad (ibid., 4). According to the Associate Professor, NGOs are unlikely to solicit and donors are unlikely to give the needed funding for shelters because of this law (22 Oct. 2013). HRHF expressed concern that Russia's civil society is "facing a situation in which it will not be possible to provide services to people in need" due to the implementation of this law (HRHF 23 May 2013, 4).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

References

Amnesty International (AI). February 2013a. Amnesty International Assessment of States' Implementation of Recommendations from the Previous UPR [Universal Periodic Review]. (IOR 41/002/2013) <http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/IOR41/002/2013/en/4c523376-66fa-43b4-a43b-bbce6ee211ba/ior410022013en.pdf> [Accessed 17 Oct. 2013]

_____. February 2013b. Russian Federation: New Laws Lead to Increased Repression of Fundamental Rights. Amnesty International Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review. (EUR 46/006/2013) <http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/EUR46/006/2013/en/b69c5953-136c-4e78-b23a-defa32494a43/eur460062013en.pdf> [Accessed 11 Oct. 2013]

_____. June 2010. Russian Federation: Briefing to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. (EUR 46/022/2010) <http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/EUR46/022/2010/en/b492fa5f-8462-4e6f-915e-e41140e33aaa/eur460222010en.pdf> [Accessed 17 Oct. 2013]

ANNA National Centre for the Prevention of Violence. 28 October 2013. Correspondence from the Director to the Research Directorate.

_____. 23 October 2013. Correspondence from the Director to the Research Directorate.

_____. July 2010. Violence Against Women in the Russian Federation. Alternative Report to the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/ANNANCPV_ RussianFederation46.pdf> [Accessed 15 Oct. 2013]

Associate Professor, Department of Political Science and Women's Studies, Brooklyn College, City University of New York (CUNY). 24 October 2013. Correspondence to the Research Directorate.

_____. 22 October 2013. Correspondence to the Research Directorate.

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 28 February 2013. "The Silent Nightmare of Domestic Violence in Russia." <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21474931#> [Accessed 11 Oct. 2013]

Freedom House. 2013. "Russia." Freedom in the World 2013. <http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/russia> [Accessed 17 Oct. 2013]

Human Rights House Foundation (HRHF). 23 May 2013. Written Statement Submitted by Human Rights House Foundation (HRHF), a Non-Governmental Organization in Special Consultative Status. (A/HRC/23/NGO/69) <http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1930_1371040105_g1313876.pdf> [Accessed 11 Oct. 2013]

The Moscow News. 29 May 2013. "State Duma to Introduce Russia's First Domestic Violence Bill." (Factiva)

_____. 21 January 2013. "Domestic Violence in Russia: Till Death Do Them Part." (Factiva)

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 28 January 2013. Tom Balmforth. "Brutal Killing in Russia Highlights Lack of Domestic Violence Law." <http://www.rferl.org/articleprintview/24885552.html> [Accessed 15 Oct. 2013]

_____. 19 September 2010. Gregory Feifer. "The Iron Ceiling: Sexism Still Strong in Russia." <http://www.rferl.org/articleprintview/2161847.html> [Accessed 17 Oct. 2013]

_____. N.d. "RFE/RL: Free Media in Unfree Societies." <http://www.rferl.org/info/about/176.html> [Accessed 6 Nov. 2013]

Reuters. 20 August 2013. Gabriela Baczynska. "Victims of Domestic Violence Face Uphill Battle for Protection in Russia." (Factiva)

Russia. 6 February 2013. National Report Submitted in Accordance with Paragraph 5 of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 16/21. (A/HRC/WG.6/16/RUS/1) <http://www.refworld.org/docid/51daa9a24.html> [Accessed 15 Oct. 2013]

_____. 27 August 2012. Considerations of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under Article 44 of the Convention. Fourth and Fifth Periodic Reports of State Parties Due in 2011. (CRC/C/RUS/4-5)

Russian Press Digest. 4 July 2012. Vladislav Kulikov. "Russia Drafts Domestic Violence Bill." (Factiva)

Transitions Online (TO). 12 March 2012. Irina Titova. "Russian Men in Crisis." <http://www.tol.org/client/article/23038-russia-men-crime.html> [Accessed 17 Oct. 2013]

United Nations (UN). 11 December 2012. Concluding Observations on the Fifth Periodic Report of the Russian Federation, Adopted by the Committee at Its Forty-Ninth Session (29 October-23 November 2012). (CAT/C/RUS/CO/5) <http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/470_1283335126_cedaw-c-usr-co-7.pdf> [Accessed 15 Oct. 2013]

_____. 16 August 2010. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. Russian Federation. (CEDAW/C/USR/CO/7) <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/485/54/PDF/N1048554.pdf?OpenElement> [Accessed 17 Oct. 2013]

United States (US). 19 April 2013. Department of State. "Russia." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012. <http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/204543.pdf> [Accessed 21 October 2013]

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Attempts to contact the following representatives were unsuccessful within the time constraints of this Response: Association of Russia's Crisis Centres; City Center of Social Help for Women; "Syostri" Sexual Assault Recovery Center.

Internet sites, including: European Commission; ecoi.net; European Union – European Institute for Gender Equality, European Women's Lobby; Factiva; Hot Peaches Pages – International Directory of Domestic Violence Agencies; Human Rights Watch; Information Center of the Independent Women's Forum; International Federation for Human Rights; legislationline.org; Psychological Crisis Center for Women; Russia – Ministry of Interior; Russia Information Network; stopvaw.org; Syostri Center; United Nations – Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Refworld, UN Women.