This Response incorporates sections of TUR40242.E of 20 November 2002 and TUR42658.E of 25 August 2004.

Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK), Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK), Kongra-Gel

The Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK) is a "Marxist group [that] in 1984 launched an armed struggle to establish an independent Kurdish state in Turkey's mainly Kurdish southeast" (AFP 29 May 2004). The group is outlawed by the Turkish government (ibid. 8 July 2004), which along with the United States (US) and the European Union (EU), has identified it as a terrorist organization (AFP 29 May 2004; ibid. 6 Apr. 2004; ibid. 2 Sept. 2003; Turkish Daily News 10 May 2003; Irish Times 12 July 2004).

Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the PKK, was arrested, charged and convicted in 1999 for treason (UK Nov. 2002, Sec. 4.23), separatism and murder (AFP 10 July 1999). Ocalan continues to be detained in isolation on Imrali Island (Country Reports 2003 25 Feb. 2004, Sec. 1.c; AFP 4 July 2004). Upon his incarceration, the PKK declared a truce and declared that it would "lay down its arms in favor of a peaceful resolution" (ibid. 29 May 2004; see also BBC 29 May 2004; ibid. 2 Sept. 2003). Following this declaration, approximately 5,000 PKK fighters moved to the Kurdish areas of Iraq and violence in Turkey by the PKK subsided (AFP 29 May 2004; Turkish Daily News 10 May 2003). According to Agence France Presse (AFP), eastern Turkey "enjoyed relative calm during the ceasefire period" (8 July 2004). Several reports indicate that many PKK fighters continue to hide in northern Iraq (AFP 16 Aug. 2004; ibid. 2 July 2004; ibid. 2 Sept. 2003; see also Turkish Daily News 22 Sept. 2003; ibid. 23 June 2004; Country Reports 2003 25 Feb. 2004, Sec. 2.d).

In an attempt to transform the PKK into a political party, the group "disbanded" and on 16 April 2002 renamed itself the Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK), with Ocalan named its president (AFP 29 May 2004; Turkish Daily News 22 Sept. 2003). An editorial in the Turkish Daily News published in May 2003 indicated that PKK "remain[ed] intact in Europe as a crime ring but [could not] recruit people and extort money as much as it did in the past" (10 May 2003).

Effective 8 August 2003 through 8 February 2004, the government implemented the "'Reintegration Law'," or a partial amnesty, to members of terrorist organizations specified by the Turkish government who in exchange, agreed not to participate in any armed attacks and agreed to provide information to the authorities about their organization and its underground activities (Country Reports 2003 25 Feb. 2004, Sec. 2.d; Turkish Daily News 22 Sept. 2003; AFP 7 Aug. 2003). Under the amnesty, members who were not involved in any criminal acts were pardoned (ibid.) and those who were involved in criminal acts received more lenient sentences (Turkish Daily News 22 Sept. 2003; ibid. 15 July 2003). Specifically, those who committed murder received nine to twelve years' imprisonment, while those who committed other violent acts received a four-fifths reduction in their sentence (ibid.; ibid. 22 Sept. 2003). The amnesty, however, did not apply to leaders of terrorist organizations (ibid.) and was mainly targeted at PKK/KADEK fighters hiding in northern Iraq (ibid.; AFP 7 Aug. 2003), although the amnesty also applied to members of "Islamist and far-left movements" (ibid.; Turkish Daily News 15 July 2003). After the amnesty was officially announced, and Ocalan rejected it and threatened to end the ceasefire if Turkish military operations against members of his organization continued, PKK fighters "hurled a bomb and opened fire on a security checkpoint in the southeastern city of Mardin late [6 August 2003], killing two policemen" (AFP 7 Aug. 2003; ibid. 22 Aug. 2003). In the first day of the amnesty, 111 PKK/KADEK fighters surrendered to the authorities, while another 333 PKK/KADEK members who were already imprisoned, applied to benefit from the amnesty (ibid.; DPA 7 Aug. 2003). By 19 December 2003, a total of "2,486 prisoners had applied for benefits under the law and 586 active militants had turned themselves in" (Country Reports 2003 25 Feb. 2004, Sec. 2.d).

On 1 September 2003, KADEK declared that it was ending its ceasefire because the Turkish government had failed to initiate a ceasefire of its own and because the government had "fail[ed] to grant Kurds greater political and cultural rights" (BBC 2 Sept. 2003; see also AFP 2 Sept. 2003; Turkish Daily News 22 Sept. 2003). A KADEK spokeswoman noted that the government had increased its operations against the organization's members and maintained that "there had been no 'military activities' by the PKK, although the rebels have been blamed by unnamed officials for some recent violence in the south-east" (BBC 2 Sept. 2003). In October 2003, AFP reported that clashes between PKK/KADEK fighters and Turkish forces had until that time "practically stopped" (10 Oct. 2003).

Stating that it needed to "'clear the way for a new organization...with a more democratic structure [to] allow...greater participation [of] representative[s] [advocating for] the interests of the Kurdish people'," KADEK announced in November 2003 that it was disbanding, although "armed PKK militants retained a 'self-defense' capability for KADEK" (AFP 29 May 2004; see also Country Reports 2003 25 Feb. 2004, Sec. 1.a). KADEK eventually became Kongra-Gel, which stated that the organization was "renouncing separatism" (AFP 29 May 2004).

On 29 May 2004, Kongra-Gel announced that it would end its ceasefire on 1 June 2004 (ibid.; ibid. 2 July 2004; BBC 29 May 2004) due to the ongoing military operations against the organization's fighters (ibid.). Following this announcement, there was a "marked rise in terrorist activities in eastern and southeastern Turkey" (Turkish Daily News 23 June 2004; see also Riskwire Turkey 6 Aug. 2004). Kongra-Gel fighters are believed to be returning to Turkey, after hiding in Iraq for several years, to engage in renewed violence (AFP 16 Aug. 2004; ibid. 8 July 2004). AFP reported that between 1 June 2004 and 13 August 2004 there were over 50 clashes between Kongra-Gel's fighters and Turkish security forces (13 Aug. 2004).

However, clashes between PKK/KADEK/Kongra-Gel fighters and Turkish forces were reported by the media throughout the period covered by this Response (January 2003 to September 2004), specifically in Tunceli province (AFP 21 May 2003; ibid. 25 May 2003; ibid. 10 Oct. 2003; ibid. 2 Aug. 2004; DPA 11 July 2003; TRT2 Television 28 Sept. 2003; Anatolia 19 July 2004), Bingol province (BBC 6 June 2003; Anatolia 5 Nov. 2003; DPA 11 July 2003; AFP 20 Nov. 2003; ibid. 14 June 2004; ibid. 2 Aug. 2004), Batman province (AFP 22 Aug. 2003), Elazig province (Anatolia 16 Oct. 2003), Tokat province (Anatolia 5 Nov. 2003), Diyarbakir province (AP 9 May 2004), Hatay province (AFP 14 June 2004), Mus province (Anatolia 14 July 2004), Hakkari province (ibid. 24 July 2004; Guardian 1 Sept. 2004), Sirnak province (Anatolia 17 Aug. 2004a), Van province (ibid., b; ibid. 20 Aug. 2004) and Mardin province (ibid. 15 Feb. 2004).

In mid to late 2004, several media reports indicated that there were some divisions within Kongra-Gel, between those who support a political struggle for Kurdish autonomy and those who support an armed struggle for Kurdish autonomy (BBC 29 May 2004; Turkish Daily News 3 June 2004; ibid. 17 June 2004; Guardian 1 Sept. 2004; see also Hurriyet 1 Mar. 2004).

In June 2004, Turkish Daily News reported that although Kongra-Gel/PKK is not as powerful as it once was, "[i]t has always been true for every Kurdish party that the PKK controls political movements and the parties in the region" (17 June 2004).

Additional information on Kongra-Gel can be accessed through the organization's Website at http://www.kongra-gel.com/.

Treatment of PKK/KADEK/Kongra-Gel Members, Supporters, Sympathizers

In the period between April 2003 and September 2004, numerous suspected PKK/KADEK/Kongra-gel members and supporters were detained or arrested by Turkish authorities on suspicion of their involvement in terrorist activities carried out in eastern Turkey (BBC 19 Apr. 2003; AFP 10 Nov. 2003; ibid. 2 Aug. 2004; Anatolia 10 July 2004; ibid. 1 Sept. 2004), on suspicion of their plotting of armed attacks (AFP 17 Nov. 2003; Anatolia 26 Feb. 2004; ibid. 5 Mar. 2004; ibid. 20 May 2004; AFP 1 June 2004; ibid. 12 July 2004), on suspicion of their involvement in recruiting members for the PKK/KADEK (Anatolia 11 Jan. 2004; ibid. 16 Apr. 2004), for their involvement in illegal or pro-PKK/KADEK demonstrations (TRT2 Television 22 Jan. 2004; Anatolia 12 Mar. 2004; AFP 15 Feb. 2004; ibid. 19 Jan. 2003), for their involvement in violence (TRT2 Television 22 Jan. 2004; Anatolia 12 Mar. 2004) or on charges of "'membership [in] an illegal organization'" (AI 8 June 2004; Anatolia 1 Sept. 2004). In January 2004, two activists of the Democratic People's Party (DEHAP) were arrested after publicly referring to Ocalan as "'mister'" in a press statement condemning Ocalan's prison conditions (AFP 5 Jan. 2004). Such a title in Turkey implies that the individual is "respectable and esteemed" (ibid.). The activists were charged with "'disseminating propaganda in favor of a terrorist organization'," which is punishable by a prison term of up to five years (ibid.). Information on the outcome of these charges could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

Two PKK/KADEK members were also arrested while trying to enter Turkey illegally from Iran (Anatolia 15 Mar. 2004) and another two members were arrested while attempting to illegally enter Greece from Turkey (ibid. 29 Aug. 2004).

In June 2004, Amnesty International reported that since the incarceration of Ocalan in 1999, there has been a "steady reduction" in "torture and ill-treatment against [PKK/KADEK] detainees" by Turkish security forces (8 June 2004).

In June 2004, the State Security Court of Istanbul ordered the anti-terrorist police to search the offices of the pro-Kurdish press agency named Dicle (Reporters Without Borders 15 June 2004). The police carried out the order on 8 June 2004, and arrested 16 journalists for suspected links with Kongra-Gel (ibid.). Thereafter, the police also searched the offices of Ozgur Halk and Genc Bakis, pro-Kurdish monthly publications, and arrested another six staff members (ibid.). Reporters Without Borders indicated that most of those arrested, were released within days of their arrests (ibid.).

Also in June 2004, a Turkish court ordered the release of four Kurdish former members of parliament (Leyla Zana, Orhan Dogan, Hatip Dicle and Selim Sadak) after they had spent ten years in jail (BBC 9 June 2004; Middle East Times 11 June 2004; HRW 15 June 2004; MRG July 2004, 14). The four were imprisoned for their alleged ties with the PKK (BBC 9 July 2004; Middle East Times 11 June 2004). At the time of their release, an appeal against the initial conviction was pending (BBC 9 July 2004). After hearing the appeal, a Turkish court ordered a retrial of the four former members of parliament (Anatolia 14 July 2004). In July 2004, Turkish authorities hoped to initiate new charges against Zana and her counterparts for "making separatist speeches at rallies in south-eastern Turkey" in June 2004, following their release (BBC 9 July 2004; see also MRG July 2004, 14).

In September 2004, an Istanbul-based Turkish-language daily newspaper, Sabah, reported that suspicions about Turkish plans to initiate a military operation against Kongra-Gel/PKK in the fall of 2004 in northern Iraq have, following statements made by the Turkish Foreign Minister, Abdullah Gul, and the Turkish Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdogen, become a "serious 'intention'" (6 Sept. 2004). No additional information on such a military operation could be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

For additional information on the situation and activities of the PKK/KADEK/Kongra-Gel, please refer to Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2003.

Hezbollah

According to an editorial by Voice of America, "Hezbollah is an extremist Shia Muslim group dedicated to increasing its political power in Lebanon and to destroying Israel and the United States. ... Hezbollah is closely allied with Iran ... [and] receives substantial financial and military aid from Iran and Syria" (29 Mar. 2002). However, several sources indicate that the Hezbollah that operates in Turkey is not connected to the Hezbollah that operates in Lebanon (RiskWire 6 Aug. 2004; AP 19 Nov. 2003; Belfast Telegraph 25 Nov. 2003; Financial Times 28 Nov. 2003; Middle East Times 28 Jan. 2000; Council on Foreign Relations 2002; World Socialist Web Site 16 Feb. 2000; New York Times 23 Jan. 2000). Nevertheless, "the two groups evidently share a fervent commitment to radical Islam" and according to Turkish and Israeli officials, both groups receive support from Iran (ibid.). Turkish Daily News, a liberal, English daily newspaper (World Press Review n.d.), indicated that apprehended Hezbollah members have

...admitted in their testimonies that they have received military training and all required support in Iran and detailed the names and the descriptions of the Iranian guards who acted on behalf of the Iranian government (29 Jan. 2000).

A report on Hezbollah in Turkey by the Center for Defense Information (CDI), provides the following background on the organization:

Initially, members of Turkish Hezbollah...received military training in Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) camps. Cooperation soon turned to rivalry however, with Hezbollah accusing the PKK of murdering Muslims, cooperating with Armenians, serving communism and seeking to divide the Muslim community. Consequently, Hezbollah set out to kill its PKK rivals across the provinces of Batman, Diyarbakir and Van, often posing as women during operations to avoid suspicion. This struggle went on for many years....

Internal conflict within Turkish Hezbollah prevented it from becoming homogenous. The group was comprised of two factions that disagreed on the methods needed to advance its main goal: an Islamic state in Turkey. The Ilimciler (the scientists), the larger of the two, advocated the use of violence and armed struggle, while the Menzilciler (the rangers), supported an intellectual approach and believed armed struggle to be premature. As these views solidified, the factions attempted to destroy one another. The Ilimciler came out the stronger -- particularly after the Menzilciler leader's death (10 Dec. 2003).

Several media sources reported that until 1999, the Turkish government encouraged, supported, financed and armed Hezbollah so that it would target the PKK (Belfast Telegraph 25 Nov. 2003; Gulf News 26 Nov. 2003; Times 8 Dec. 2003; Financial Times 28 Nov. 2003). Over time, however, the government's need for Hezbollah disappeared and the Turkish government ordered the army to "quash" the organization (ibid.). Following this order by the government, Hezbollah members were arrested and killed, while others allegedly joined al-Qaeda (ibid.).

Associated Press (AP) reported that between August and November 2003, approximately 130 Hezbollah members were released in south-eastern Turkey under the August 2003 partial amnesty, which also applied to "Kurdish, Islamic and leftist militants" (Reintegration Law) (19 Nov. 2003).

In November 2003, two synagogues were attacked by suicide bombers in Istanbul (UPI 18 Nov. 2003). It is believed that the suspects had links with Hezbollah (ibid.; CDI 10 Dec. 2003). Reports of other suspected Hezbollah attacks, clashes between Hezbollah and Turkish forces, or arrests of members of Hezbollah could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

According to RiskWire, an up-to-date analysis of political, economic and business conditions prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit, which is a group composed of 100 country experts and economists based in London, New York and Hong Kong and is the business information wing of The Economist Group (EIU n.d.a; ibid. n.d.b), Hezbollah in Turkey

...pose[s] comparatively minor threats to security. [The] group is [not] likely to attack foreign interests; their pattern in the past has been to turn their wrath on secular Turkish targets. [It] also lack[s] the logistic capability to carry out an extended campaign (6 Aug. 2004).

Additional information Hezbollah in Turkey could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of additional sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

References

Agence France Presse (AFP). 16 August 2004. "Turkey Calls on Iraq to Take Action Against Kurdish Rebels." (Dialog)

_____. 13 August 2004. "Police Officer Killed in Clash With Kurdish extremists: Report." (Dialog)

_____. 2 August 2004. "Turkish Police Kill Three Kurdish Rebels." (Dialog)

_____. 8 July 2004. "Turkish Army Vows to Combat Resurgent Kurdish Violence, Renews Call to US." (Dialog)

_____. 4 July 2004. "Turkish Police Clash With Kurdish Demonstrators." (Dialog)

_____. 2 July 2004. "Kurdish Rebels Deny Responsibility for Car Bomb in Turkey." (Dialog)

_____. 14 June 2004. "Kurdish Rebels Kill Three Turkish Guards." (Dialog)

_____. 1 June 2004. "Turkey Foils Planned Bomb Attacks by Kurdish Rebels." (Dialog)

_____. 29 May 2004. "Kongra-Gel is Latest Reincarnation of Turkey's Kurdish Separatist PKK." (Dialog)

_____. 6 April 2004. "Kurdish Group Complains as PKK Offshoot Makes EU Terror List." (Dialog)

_____. 15 February 2004. "Dozens Detained in Turkey in Ocalan Protest." (Dialog)

_____. 5 January 2004. "Turkey Arrests Kurdish Activists for Addressing Rebel Leader as 'Mister'." (Dialog).

_____. 17 November 2003. "Turkish Police Arrest Five over Istanbul Attack Plot: Report." (Dialog)

_____. 20 November 2003. "Turkish Troops Kill 14 Kurdish Rebels in Clashes in Southeast." (Dialog)

_____. 10 November 2003. "Turkey Detains Suspected Kurdish Would-Be Bombers." (Dialog)

_____. 10 October 2003. "Four Kurdish Rebels Killed in East Turkey." (Dialog)

_____. 2 September 2003. "Top Kurd Rebel Says End of Truce Does Not Mean War with Ankara." (Dialog)

_____. 22 August 2003. "Seven Kurdish Rebels, Two Soldiers Killed in Southeastern Turkey Clash." (Dialog)

_____. 7 August 2003. "Some 450 Militants Ask for Amnesty in Turkey." (Dialog)

_____. 25 May 2003. "Kurdish Rebel Killed in Fighting in Eastern Turkey." (NEXIS)

_____. 21 May 2003. "Six Killed in Clashes Between Army and Rebels in Turkey." (NEXIS)

_____. 19 January 2003. "Turkey Arrests 22 at Pro-Ocalan Demo." (NEXIS)

_____. 10 July 1999. "Ocalan Execution Decision Lies with Turkey Says Official." (NEXIS)

Amnesty International (AI). 8 June 2004. "Turkey." (EUR44/027/2004). http://www2.amnesty.se/ [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

Anatolia. 1 September 2004. "Turkey: 1 Kongra-Gel Suspect Arrested in Istanbul." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 29 August 2004. "Turkey: 2 PKK Members Arrested in Aydin." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 20 August 2004. "Turkey: Two Policemen Injured in PKK/Kongra-Gel Attack Near Hakkari." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 17 August 2004a. "Turkey: Terrorist Killed in Clashes Between Security Forces, Kongra-Gel in Sirnak." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 17 August 2004b. "Turkey: Village Guard Killed in Clashes With PKK/Kongra-Gel in Van." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 24 July 2004. "Turkey: PKK Member Killed in Hakkari Clash." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 19 July 1004. "Turkey: Soldier Injured in PKK/Kongra-Gel 'Terrorist' Attack in Tunceli." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 14 July 2004. "Turkey: 4 PKK/Kongra-Gel Terrorists Killed in Mus in Clashes With Security Forces. (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 12 July 2004. "Turkey: 2 PKK Members Planning to Stage Attacks Detained in Istanbul, Adiyaman." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 10 July 2004. "Turkey: 10 Arrested for Aiding, Abetting PKK/Kongra-Gel in Tunceli." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 20 May 2004. "Turkey: 3 PKK Members Said Planning to Attack Police Captured in Sirnak." (Dialog)

_____. 16 April 2004. "Police Capture Four Militant Kurds in Southeastern Turkey." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 15 March 2004. "Turkish Police Capture 2 Members of PKK Entering Country from Iran." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 12 March 2004. "Turkey: Police Detain Eight Suspected Kurdish Activists." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 5 March 2004. "Turkey: Three Detained on Suspicion of Preparing a Bomb Attack." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 26 February 2004. "Turkey: Four PKK Members Caught Planning to Attack High-Level Officials." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 15 February 2004. "Kurdish 'Terrorist' Killed in Clash with Gendarmes in Southeastern Turkey." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 11 January 2004. "Turkey: 11 Detained for Aiding KADEK, Recruiting Members." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 5 November 2003. "Four Rebel Kurds Reported Killed in Clashes in Eastern Turkey." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 16 October 2003. "Turkey: PKK Member Killed in Elazig Clash." (WNC/Dialog)

_____. 2 September 2003. "Kurdish Rebels Abandon Truce." http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/europe/3200907.stm [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

_____. 6 June 2003. "Turkey: Soldier Wounded in Clash with 'Terrorists' in Eastern Province." (NEXIS)

_____. 19 April 2003. "Turkey: Twenty Detained in Connection with Terrorist Activities in Southeast." (BBC Monitoring/NEXIS)

Associated Press (AP). 9 May 2004. "Kurdish Rebels Ambush Military Vehicle in Turkey; Two Killed." (Dialog)

_____. 19 November 2003. Esra Aygin. "Turkey's Islamic-Rooted Government Criticized; DNA Tests Confirm Two Turks as Suicide Bombers." (Dialog)

BBC. 14 July 2004. "Freed Kurd Ex-MPs to Get Retrial." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3892473.stm [Accessed 20 Aug. 2004]

_____. 9 July 2004. "Freed Kurd Ex-MPs Face New Threat." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3880257.stm [Accessed 15 Sept. 2004]

_____. 9 June 2004. "Kurd Activists Leave Turkish Jail." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3790997.stm [Accessed 20 Aug. 2004]

_____. 29 May 2004. Jonny Dymond. "Kurds Move to End Turkish Truce." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3760285.stm [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

Belfast Telegraph. 25 November 2003. "Istanbul Bombing Suspects Handed Over to Terror Court." (Dialog)

Center for Defense Information (CDI). 10 December 2003. "In the Spotlight: Turkish Hezbollah." http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=1928 [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

Council on Foreign Relations. 2002. "Turkey: What Role is Turkey Playing in the War on Terrorism?" http://www.terrorismanswers.com/coalition/turkey.html [Accessed 4 Nov. 2002]

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2003. 25 February 2004. "Turkey." United States Department of State. Washington, DC. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27869.htm [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

Deutsche Presse Agentur (DPA). 7 August 2003. "More than 100 Kurdish Rebels Surrender after Amnesty." (Dialog)

_____. 11 July 2003. "PKK Rebels Kill Four Villagers in Southeast Turkey." (Dialog)

Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). n.d.a. "About the EIU RiskWire." http://riskwire.eiu.com/site_info.asp?info_name=riskwire [Accessed 15 Sept. 2004]

_____. n.d.b. "About the Economist Intelligence Unit." http://riskwire.eiu.com/site_info.asp?info_name=about_eiu [Accesse 15 Sept. 2004]

Financial Times [London, UK]. 28 November 2003. Mark Huband. "Europe: Turkey Tastes Bitter Fruit of Kurdish Conflict: Mark Huband Looks for the Roots of Islamic Extremism in the Eastern Town of Bingol." (Dialog)

Guardian [London]. 1 September 2004. "Turks Attack Kurdish Rebels." http://www.guardian.co.uk/turkey/story/0,12700,1294594,00.html [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

Gulf News. 26 November 2003. "Amir Taheri: Erdogan Has a Lot to Do in Secular Turkey." (Dialog)

Human Rights Watch (HRW). 15 June 2004. "Turkey: EU Bid Hinges on Further Rights Reforms." http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2004/06/15/turkey8816.htm [Accessed 17 June 2004]

Hurriyet [Istanbul, in Turkish]. 1 March 2004. Ihsan Dortkardes and Ozgur Cebe. "Turkey: Rift Within PKK Following Disagreements Among Members." (FBIS-NES-2004-0301 2 Mar. 2004/WNC)

Irish Times [Dublin]. 12 July 2004. "Turkey, Bush and the Kurds." (Dialog)

Middle East Times. 11 June 2004. "Hope for Reform in Turkey as Kurdish Dissidents Released." http://metimes.com/2K4/issue2004-24/reg/hope_for_reform.htm [Accessed 18 Aug. 2004]

_____. 28 January 2000. David O'Byrne. "More Skeletons Found in Turkey's Political Closet." http://metimes.com/2K/issue2000-4/reg/more_skeletons_found.htm [Accessed 4 Nov. 2002]

Minority Rights Group International (MRG). July 2004. Minorities in Turkey. Submission to the European Union and the Government of Turkey. http://www.minorityrights.org/admin/download/pdf/MRG-TurkeySub.pdf [Accessed 19 Aug. 2004]

New York Times. 23 January 2000. Stephen Kinzer. "Mass Graves in Turkey Put Attention on Terror Call." (in Kurdistan Observer) http://www.kurdishobserver.com/2000/01/26hab07.html [Accessed 4 Nov. 2002]

Reporters Without Borders. 15 June 2004. "Pro-Kurd Journalists Arrested Ahead of NATO Summit Released; Two Charged." http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=10568 [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

RiskWire. 6 August 2004. Economist Intelligence Unit. "Turkey Risk: Security Risk." (Dialog)

Sabah [Istanbul, in Turkish]. 6 September 2004. Asli Aydintasbas. "Turkey: Columnist Views Possibility of Cross-Border Operation Against PKK." (Dialog)

Times [London, UK]. 8 December 2003. Suna Erdem. "Turkey's Town of Terrorists; Analysis." (Dialog)

TRT2 Television. 22 January 2004. "Turkey: Twelve Militant Kurds Captured in Istanbul." (BBC International/Dialog)

_____. 28 September 2003. "Soldier Killed in Clash With Kurdish Rebels in Southeast Turkey." (BBC International/Dialog)

Turkish Daily News [Ankara]. 23 June 2004. Ilnur Cevik. "Who Left the Door Open?" http://www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/06_23_04/comment.htm [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

_____. 17 June 2004. Mehmet Ali Birand. "Turkish State, DEHAP Seen Differing on PKK Role in Kurdish Issue." (FBIS-WEU-2004-0617 18 June 2004/WNC)

_____. 3 June 2004. Mehmet Ali Birand. "What is the PKK Aiming at?" http://www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/06_03_04/birand.htm [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

_____. 22 September 2003. "Washington Institute: Time to Shut Down the PKK." (Dialog)

_____. 15 July 2003. "PKK's Bulut Surrenders to Security Forces." (Dialog)

_____. 10 May 2003. Ilnur Cevik. "Real Deal on the PKK Necessary." http://www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/05_10_03/comment.htm [Accessed 14 Sept. 2004]

_____. 29 January 2000. "Hizbullah Is a Prime Example of State's 'Playing One Against the Other.'" (Global News Wire)

United Kingdom (UK). November 2002. Immigration and Nationality Directorate. Turkey. Country Information and Policy Unit. "Turkey." Home Office Country Report. http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/default.asp?PageId=3526 [Accessed 14 Jan. 2003]

United Press International (UPI). 18 November 2003. "UPI NewsTrack TopNews-U.S., Insurgent Fatalities amid Raids." (Dialog)

Voice of America (VOA). 29 March 2002. "Hezbollah's Long Record of Terror." http://www.hri.org/news/usa/voa/2002/02-03-29.voa.html#03 [Accessed 4 Nov. 2002]

World Press Review. n.d. "Newspapers and Magazines: Turkey." http://www.worldpress.org/newspapers/EUROPE/Turkey.cfm [Accessed 15 Nov. 2002]

World Socialist Web Site. 16 February 2000. Justus Leicht. "Government Crackdown Against the Hezbollah in Turkey." http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/feb2000/hezb-f16.shtml [Accessed 4 Nov. 2002]

Additional Sources Consulted

Internet sites, including: European Country of Origin Information Network (ECOI), Freedom in the World 2003, Human Rights Association of Turkey, Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN), International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, Organization of Human Rights and Solidarity for Oppressed People (MAZLUMDER), Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL).