This Extended Response updates the May 1996 IRB Question and Answer Series Paper: Russia: Selected Military Service Issues. The Response is largely based on interviews conducted in Moscow in May and June 1999 with members of non-governmental organizations and other individuals who work in the field of conscription.

 

Country Reports 1998, which describes dedovshchina as "the violent, sometimes fatal, hazing of new junior military recruits" by more senior personnel, reported that the incident of hazing increased sharply in 1998 (1999 section 1c). The same source also stated that the abuse can cause "permanent injuries and deaths" for soldiers (ibid.). Alexander PodrobinekPodrabinek, editor-in-chief of the Express-ChronicleEkspress-Khronika, a weekly newspaper specializing in human rights issues, stated that the situation of army conscripts in Russia is among the most desperate of any people in the country (31 May 1999). He reported that young men in the army have absolutely nno protection from more senior soldiers (ibid.). There is a hierarchy of conscripts in the ranks: older ethnic Russians are at the top, while gays, non-ethnic-Russians and men from Moscow are at the bottom (ibid.).

 

Eda Kuklina of the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia (CSMR) reported that two groups of men are often targets of abuse: Muscovites and homosexuals (21 May 1999). Kuklina believes that people from the Caucasus have also been targets of abuse, since the Russian military began recruiting them in 1997 (ibid.). She suggested, however, that people from ethnic minority groups are able to form communities for themselves in the troops, and, therefore, are better able to work together to protect themselves as a community than ethnic Russians who might be targeted (ibid.).

 

Every year, the CSMR receives about 4,000 requests in person and 3,000 written requests for assistance from soldiers (n.d.). Roughly 60 per cent of complaints concern violations of life and human dignity—: beatings, humiliations, torture and other crimes—; and 20 per cent are related to health and living conditions (ibid.). According to the CSMR, the official data show that over 3,000 soldiers who are not located in conflict zones, die from hunger, diseases, accidents and suicides every year in the army (ibid.).

 

Sergei Surokin, an advisor to individuals who wish to request alternative service, stated that conscripts face physical and mental harassment such as hazing, human rights abuses and serious health risks in the forces (1 June 1999). He stated that they are lied to by officials who do not give them adequate information when they enlist, about the conditions they are about to face (ibid.).

 

According to Surokin, nearly one million men receive call up notices each year to report to the local military office (ibid.). Nezavisimaya Gazeta reported that according to the military officer in charge of the draft, Vladislav Putilin, of the total amount called up, 85.9 per cent of those on the conscription lists are exempted for various reasons; for example, the majority of those who receive exemptions are students (21 May 1999a, 9, 12). Putilin also acknowledged tThe poor health conditions of Russian drafteesees haves been recognized officially; for example, in a newspaper interview with the head of the general staff, Vladislav Putilin, (ibid., 9, 12Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 21 May 1999a, 9, 12). According to Putilin, Of the aApproximately 85.9 per cent who areof those exempted during on the call up processdraft list, are exempted from service for various reasons; of that 85.9 per cent, 12.8 per cent of those on the conscription lists are rejected for medical reasons (ibid., 9) Statistics from the Russian ministry of defence show that the most common medical reasons are diseases of the internal organs, motor activity problems resulting from injuries and [translation] "mental backwardness" or psychiatric problemssuch as having internal diseases, surgical or motor problems, or showing mental, intelligence or psychiatric problems (ibid.Nezavisimaya Gazeta 1999b, 12)). Of those men declared fit for service, almost 30 per cent suffer from malnutritionare underweight (ibid.).(.

 

Approximately 180,000-200,000 men are drafted in every recruitment campaign (Khramov 26 May 1999). The CSMR reports that "the violations of soldiers' human rights begin in the military commissariats" (n.d.). According to data issued by military medical authorities, as cited by the CSMR, in general, more than 1,500 soldiers have to be de-commissioned for health reasons in the first three months of service and more than 2,000 in the next 3‑ month period (ibin.d.).

 

AVOIDING MILITARY SERVICE

 

There are two call updraft campaigns each year: between 1 April and 1 July, and again between 1 October and 31 December (Kuklina 21 May 1999). Approximately 180,000-200,000 men are drafted in every campaign (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). There are several common legal and illegal methods to avoid Russian military service. Approximately 40,000 soldiers are currently illegally absent from military service (Kuklina 21 May 1999; Transitions Nov. 1998, 21)..

 

Using Legal Exemptions

 

The CSMR explains to soldiers and potential conscripts the various legal avenues open to them to become exempt from military service or to leave the army (Kuklina 21 May 1999; PodrobinekPodrabinek 31 May 1999). According to Eda Kuklina, the committee targets the draftees who are unfit for military service (ibid.). The CSMR explains all the options open to them, such as medical exemptions or pension regulations, for example, exemptions that might allow a man to claim an exemption on the grounds that his parent is a pensioner (ibid.).

 

A campaign was launched a year ago to encourage men who had deserted from the army to come forward and request official permission to be discharged from the forces (Nikolsky 9 June 1999; PodrobinekPodrabinek 31 May 1999). The CSMR cooperated in this campaign with the procuracysecutor's office (ibid.; Surokin 1 June 1999). According to one source, Transitions, a number of centres have also been set up by the Military Prosecutor's Office and the CSMR; men who have left the service illegally are encouraged to come forward to request counselling or an investigation into charges of abuse (Nov. 1998, 21). The same source says that according to the CSMR, approximately 2,000 men a year come to the centres and nearly a third of them have received discharges for medical reasons, (ibid.).

 

The process used by the CSMR to get draftees released from the army for medical reasons or following human rights abuses is time -consuming (Kuklina 21 May 1999). Parents are advised to write to the Military Prosecutor's Office and inform the Military Commissariat that they want their son to be discharged for a given reason (ibid.). If, for example, he was beaten, they are advised to arrange for a medical professional to examine and document the injuries. The CSMR then writes to the military unit and sends a copy of the letter to the Military Prosecutor's Office to request the initiation of a criminal proceedingscase. An immediate reply is unlikely and generally there are many letters and telephone calls between the CSMR, the Military Prosecutor's Office and the military unit before a decision is finally reached in the case (ibid.).

 

According to Kuklina, the number of soldiers' families requesting discharges for their sons on the grounds of personal abuse is decreasing, while the number of those requesting the assistance of the CSMR to obtain discharges for their sons for health-related reasons is increasing (ibid.). She attributed this in part to the fact that the CSMR is becoming more skilful at assisting people in health-related cases (ibid.).

 

In 1998, the Military Prosecutor's Office launched a campaign, primarily in the Moscow area, to reduce incidents of abuse within the army and to launchopen criminal proceedingscases when it hears about instances of abuse (ibid.). Kuklina indicated that she is skeptical of the sincerity of the efforts being made by the Military Prosecutor's Office (ibid.).

 

Alternative Service

 

Article 59 of the Russian constitution guarantees the right to alternative service, stating that anyone who cannot conductperform his military service due to his conviction or his faith can instead performhave his military service substituted by civilian service (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999; Kuklina 21 May 1999). For information on alternatives to military service, see the IRB's

 

Response to Information Request RUS28177.E available in the IRB's Regional Documentation Centres, the REFINFO database, and on the IRBnternet Website at . However, legislation implementing an alternative service has still not been passed (ibid.; XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). In October 1998, a bill implementing a law on an alternative civilian service that had been under consideration since 1994 was voted down by the dDuma at its second reading (ibid.; The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8). According to Kuklina and Nikolai XramovKhramov, a representative of the Antimilitarist Radical Association (ARA) and the Transnational Radical Party (TRATRP), there are no other bills under consideration and it is unlikely that anything will be put forward before the December 1999 Dduma elections (Kuklina 21 May 1999; Khramov 26 May 1999).

 

Even in the absence of an alternative service law, alternative service is still a constitutional right and, therefore, it is possible to apply for conscientious objector status. In practice, each draftee seeking this status must be willing to take his case to court (Kuklina 21 May 1999; Surokin 1 June 1999; XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). According to official figures, in the spring and autumn 1997 draft call up campaigns, 635 and 1,061 men, respectively, used their right to conscientious objector status (ibid.). Roughly 1,000 men applied for alternative service in the fall of 1998 (The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8). As XramovKhramov put it, there are no official successes, because no one is ever sent to do official alternative service, but people who apply, are successful in avoiding the obligation to serve in the army (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). According to Surokin, of the approximately 150 men he has assisted through civil and criminal court proceedings so that their conscientious objector status was accepted, only two have given up and joined the military services (The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8).

 

Once a draftee is called to the draft, he must officially declare his conscientious objector status to the draft board and demand to be placed in civilian service (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). Because there is no alternative service law, there are no specific criteria an objector must meet—no definition of conscience or belief (ibid.; The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8). Kuklina believes that this status is easier to obtain for people with easily-provable membership in a religious minority (21 May 1999). The draftee must also write a statement for the recruitment office that, in the absence of an alternative civilian service, he cannot be dispatched for service (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). At that point, the military office usually decides to call the draftee to military service (ibid.). This decision is then appealed to the courts (ibid.).

 

Appeals are granted only in approximately 25 to 30 per cent of cases (ibid.). If the appeal is granted, however, the decision of the recruitment commission is abolished (ibid.). In the rest of the cases, the decision of the recruitment commission is upheld and the recruit is officially but unconstitutionally drafted, according to XramovKhramov (ibid.).

 

When and if a law on alternative service is passed and a civilian service is created, those whose appeals were successful will be re-called to the recruitment commission and the entire process will begin again (ibid.). In that case, they will again be obliged to decide whether they want to declare their conscientious objector status and apply for the civilian service (ibid.). No one actually obtains official status because, as stated above, of the lack of legislation and the fact that there is no civilian service (ibid.; Kuklina 21 May 1999). Kuklina pointed out that some regions, including Tatarstan and Samara, have in fact established regional civilian services in the form of social work (ibid.).

 

NicolaiNikolai XramovKhramov stated that there are no official consequences for those whose appeals are not granted and that this is understood by everyone involved in the process (26 May 1999). The draftee simply continues to affirm his constitutional right to opt for alternative service and waits to see if a criminal case will be taken outbrought against him for evading military service (ibid.). The military usually applies to the Military Prosecutor's Office to open a criminal case, at which time it is up to the Military Prosecutor's Office to decide whether to do so (ibid.). XramovKhramov stated that the initiation of a criminal case is not part of the accepted "routine" that has been recognized by all people in the process to this point (ibid.).

 

The Constitutional Court in May 1996 ruled that a draftee who does not take part in the draft because he has declared himself a conscientious objector is not to be considered as illegally evading service (AntimilitaristRA 15 Mar. 1999, 13; XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). Furthermore, there is no precedent ruling on the books that states that applying for conscientious objector status is a crime (ibid.).

 

According to XramovKhramov, there are cases where criminal cases have been initiated and people found guilty of draft evasion in district courts, but as far as XramovKhramov was aware, they are always overturned by the next higher court, the Court of AppealCausation (ibid.). He stated that there was one case in which a man was found criminally guilty and sentenced to fine of 17,000 rubles (ibid.). However, the individual was also pardoned and amnestied in the same judgement (ibid.). He has decided not to try to overturn the guilty verdict (ibid.).

 

Sources indicate that the incidences of people being sentenced and imprisoned for attempting to apply for alternative service are rare, but they have occurred. XramovKhramov was aware of only two such cases (ibid.). One occurred in January 1996, when Vadim Gessen was arrested in Noginsk, Moscow Region (ibid.; AntimilitaristARA 15 Mar. 1999, 13). XramovKhramov stated that Gessen was sentenced to 40 days in prison, but freed following a press campaign demanding his release (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999; see also AntimilitaristARA 15 Mar. 1999, 13). According to information from the Antimilitarist Radical Association, Gessen was acquitted of draft evasion in May 1996 by the Noginsk court (ibid.). This is considered a precedent by the TRATRP and the /ARA (ibid.; XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). In the second case, Vadim Nazarov of Sochi spent 10-15 days of a one-year sentence, in prison in 1998; the sentence was later overturned by the Krasnodar Krai Court (ibid.; also HRWF 19 Nov. 1998).

 

In addition to the two cases cited by XramovKhramov, Human Rights Without Frontiers (HRWF) provided information on a man sentenced to one and a half years for draft evasion and imprisoned between November 1997 and June 1998 (19 Nov. 1998). The same organization also cites two other cases from 1997 and 1998 in which one individual was indicted and another was sentenced for draft evasion, but the outcomes are unclear (ibid.). No further information was available from the sources consulted by the Research Directorate at the time of publication.

 

Alexander PodrobinekPodrabinek stated that he had never heard of anyone in Moscow being imprisoned after applying for alternative military service (31 May 1999). Sergei Surokin stated in a print interview that he is personally unaware of any cases where, following the procedures to apply for alternative service, the Military Commissariat has resorted to violence or tohas forcibly "dragged"ging someone into military service someone who has applied fror alternative service,, although he acknowledges that it could be possible (ChronicleKhronika Apr. 1999, 5).

 

The CSMR occasionally cites article 59 of the constitution to try to obtain alternative service for individuals, but generally does not pursue cases through the courts (Kuklina 21 May 1999). If someone wants to apply for alternative service, the committee recommends that he (or his parent) writes aone letter to the President quoting article 59, and another letter to the Military Commissariat (ibid.). Kuklina stated that during this process, the Military Commissariat puts pressure on the draftee and his family to abandon the attempt, for example, by calling the draftees' parents and threatening to put their sons in prison, or by telling them that it is the military's right to conscript their sons. She said that many of these parents are uneducated and can become swayed into dropping the request for alternative civilian service (ibid.). The draftees may also be called into the Military Commissariat for medical exams, and then be pressured into giving up their fight for conscientious objector status (ibid.).

 

Eda Kuklina stated that the CSMR does not promote the use of the courts to obtain conscientious objector status for conscripts because the process is long and involved, requiring the draftee to be persistent, and the outcome is uncertain (ibid.). She did mention, however, that in two specific cases, regional CSMRs had assisted people successfully through the courts: an Evangelical Christian was assisted in Chelyabinsk, while a Jehovah's Witness was successful in Murmansk. She is not aware of any information that indicated how many people had used the law successfully and on what grounds. She added that most men who oppose military service generally do not object on religious grounds (ibid.).

 

NicolaiNikolai XramovKhramov and Sergei Surokin also cited several reasons why few people use the courts to obtain conscientious objector status. According to Surokin, many people are either afraid, do not know what is required or simply do not wish to deal with the courts (1 June 1999). XramovKhramov believes that there is a "low legal mentality"t among the Russian population in general is poorly informed about legal matters (26 May 1999). This applies even more so to young people and is worst of all among young people who are not sophisticated enough to become students to avoid the draft (ibid.). As well, a lot of people avoid service illegally as noted below (ibid.). People see illegal evasion as a less difficult option than appearing before the courts (ibid.). The prevailing attitude about the court system is extremely negative, especially among older people, such as the parents of conscripts (ibid.).

 

Alexander PodrobinekPodrabinek and Sergei Surokin believe that more people are trying to take advantage of the conscientious objector status than in the past, but, according to Surokin, thisit is not because the option is being officially promoted (PodrobinekPodrabinek 31 May 1999; Surokin 1 June 1999). In a June 1999 newspaper interview, head of the general staff, Vladislav Putilin, the military officer in charge of the draft, specifically recommended that men avoid the ARA and groups that offer similar advice, suggesting that they encourage men to act illegally (Nezavisimaya Gazeta 21 May 1999a, 12).

 

People learn about the alternative service option from publications, newspaper articles, notices in the metro system and their friends (Surokin 1 June 1999; XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). The TRATRP and the /ARA also offers weekly workshops advising people on how to use their constitutional rights related to alternative service; these workshops usually attract between 10-50 people (ibid.).

 

Sergei Surokin stated that the low-level bureaucrats and officials with whom he deals are becoming more resistant to granting the status (1 June 1999). In the early 1990s, bureaucrats used their own initiative more, while now, he believes there is more pressure from higher levels of bureaucracy not to allow these types of cases to proceed (ibid.). The judge who ruled in favour of a conscientious objector inthe 1996 precedent-setting case for Gessen in Noginsk claims that she lost her job as a result (The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8). Surokin stated that the constitution is simply ignorednot implemented by prosecutorscurators and bureaucrats (1 June 1999). He added that there are many press stories about people being "dragged" illegally into the army, but there is never any official effort to address the problem (ibid.). For further information on alternatives to military service, see the IRB's Response to Information Request RUS28177.E of 3 November 1997, available in the IRB's Regional Documentation Centres, the REFINFO database, and on the IRB Website at .

 

Illegal Methods of LLEGAL METHODS OF EvadingVADING ServiceERVICE

 

Approximately 40,000 soldiers are currently illegally absent from military service (Kuklina 21 May 1999; Transitions Nov. 1998, 21). According to official figures, approximately 20,000-30,000 men simply do not respond to their call- up notices (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999; The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8; see also PodrobinekPodrabinek 31 May 1999). They might not answer the door or the phone when the militia comealls, or might provide authorities with an incorrect address on their registration form (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999).

 

As this is illegal, such men can be sent to prison (PodrobinekPodrabinek 31 May 1999; Nikolsky 9 June 1999). The Moscow Times states that those who do not appear when called could have warrants taken out for their arrest (8 May 1999, 8). Sources were unable to say how frequently people were actually sent to prison for evading the draft, but suggested that it is not a frequent occurrence (Nikolsky 9 June 1999; PodrobinekPodrabinek 31 May 1999; Surokin 1 June 1999). According to Surokin, the prosecutorcurator can initiate proceedings a case against a draft evader, thereforeby allowing police to try to trace him, but he stated that procuratorssecutors generally try to avoid this process (ibid.). He stated that the police are not legally allowed to look for evaders without having a case initiated against them by the prosecutor's office, but that the police do anyway, at the behest of the military offices (ibid.). He stated that the draft evaders can be and "very commonly" are taken from their homes or picked up in the street at which time the police might take them directly to the military offices, which is also illegal; according to Surokin, it occurs frequently enough that it is known as "'arrest to the army"' (1 June 1999).

 

Articles 337 and 338 of the criminal code cover desertion or unauthorized absence from military service and desertion (Kuklina 21 May 1999). Under Article 337, unauthorized leave from the place of service for between 2-10 days is punishable by a sentence of between six months to one year in a [translation] "'military disciplinary unit"' (Nezavisimaya Gazeta 21 May 1999ab, 12). Repeat offenders can receive up to a two-year sentence (ibid.). Unauthorized leave from one's place of service for between 10 days to a month-30 days is punishable by a sentence of between two toup to three years of imprisonment, and in cases of unauthorized leave from one's place of service for longer than a month, the punishment is up to five years (ibid.). According to a military official, there are currently more than 5,000 men absent without leave who have left their place of service without authorization (ibid.).

 

Article 338 covers "desertion," and is divided into two categories: desertion with or without weapons (ChronicleKhronika Apr. 1999, 5).

 

An amnesty law was passed on 18 June 1999 and includes people convicted of desertion from the army (The Moscow Times 19 June 1999, 3).

 

Sources agree that bribing one's way out of the army is common, but, by its nature, it is difficult to determine how common (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999; Kuklina 21 May 1999; Nikolsky 9 June 1999). For example, a military physician or a member of the Military Commissariat would receive a bribe for providing a false medical certificate (XramovKhramov 26 May 1999; The Moscow Times 8 May 1999, 8; Kuklina 21 May 1999). Before the August 1998 financial crisis, bribes ranged frombetween US$2,000--6,000 (ibid.; XramovKhramov 26 May 1999). Nikolai XramovKhramov was not certain of the current going rate (ibid.). Kuklina related an incident from Ekaterinberg in which the price for a medical certificate, where the draftee was, in fact, legally exempt due to health reasons, was 12,000 rubles (US$500) (21 May 1999). She noted that the truly rich use other methods to avoid military service, such as sending their children abroad or to school (ibid.).

 

In 1998, there were 13 criminal cases of corruption in the Military Commissariat, while in 1999, there have been two to date (Nezavisimaya Gazeta 21 May 1999b); Kuklina called this "the tip of the iceberg" (21 May 1999).

 

Valerii Nikolsky, the head of the Freedom of Conscience Society, suggested that people can be left off conscription lists through personal connections, although the extent to which this happens is also difficult to determine (9 June 1999).

 

This Response Extended Response was prepared primarily on the basis of oral interviews conducted in the Russian Federation in May and June 1999. was prepared after researching publicly accessible information within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum.

 

Notes on Selected Sources

 

Nikolai Khramov

 

Nikolai Khramov is the secretary of the Antimilitarist Radical Association (ARA), and a member of the Transnational Radical Party (TRP), an international group of national organizations. The TRP is involved in several international activities, including campaigns for an International Criminal Court, changes to drug laws, the right to abortion and divorce and the right to conscientious objector status for conscripts.. The ARA is a Russian national affiliate of the TRP; until recently, its main focus was to agitate for a conscientious objector law in Russia; since May 1999, it has been agitating to establish a fully professional army in Russia.

 

Eda Kuklina

 

Mmember of the Coordinating Council of the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia (CSMR), a human rights non-governmental organization established in 1989. Its main focus is the protection of the human rights of draftees, soldiers and their parents. The committee addresses complaints of human rights abuses received from soldiers and draftees and organizes human rights education for draftees and their parents.

 

Valerii Nikolsky

 

Valerii Nikolsky is the head of the Freedom of Conscience Society, an organization that monitors and produces information on the situation of Russia's minority religions.

 

Alexander PodrobinekPodrabinek

 

PodrobinekPodrabinek is the editor-in-chief of the human rights newspaper, the Eksxpress-- KhronikaChronicle. The paper has beenbegan publishing published since in August 1987, beginning as a samizdat, an underground publication, and, after since 1991, hasas been a regularly published newspaper. The paper receives no government funding and is not affiliated to any party or movement.

 

Sergei Surokin

 

Sergei Surokin is a member of the Moscow Helsinki Group and works independently as a counsellor to men who wish to apply for alternative military service. He has met with approximately 10,000 men, provided in-depth counselling to roughly 1,000 and helped approximately 150 draftees through civil and criminal proceedings to have their conscientious objector status accepted since he began these activities in the mid-1980s.

 

Valerii Nikolsky

 

Valerii Nikolsky is the head of the Freedom of Conscience Society, an organization that monitors and produces information on the situation of Russia's minority religions.

 

Nikolai Xramov/Khramov

 

Nikolai XramovKhramov is the secretary of the Antimilitarist Radical Association (ARA), and a member of the Transnational Radical Party (TRA), an international group of national organizations. The TRA is involved in several international activities, including campaigns for an International Criminal Court, changes to drug laws, the right to abortion and divorce and the rights to conscientious objector status for conscripts., abortion and divorce. The ARA is a Russian national affiliate of the TRA; until recently, its main focus was to agitate for a conscientious objector law in Russia; since May 1999, it has been agitating to establish a fully professional army in Russia.

 

Refereferences

 

Antimilitarist

 

Antimilitarist Radical Association (ARA). [Moscow]. 15 March 1999. "Antimilitarist." Desyat' let antimilitaristskoy borbyrossiiskikh radikalov".

 

(published by the Antimilitarist Radical Association).

 

Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia (CSMR) [Moscow]. no date. "Human Rights Activities of the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia and Their Perspectives."

 

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1998. 1999. United States Department of State. Washington, DC. [Accessed 8 Sept. 1999]

 

Chronicle. April 1999. No. 4 (46). "Samoe slozhnoe - naychit' zhit' svobodno!" (newsletter of the Moscow Helsinki Group)

 

Human Rights Without Frontiers (HRWF). 19 November 1998. "Press and Information Service: Section Religious Intolerance and Discrimination" Russia: Imprisonment of Conscientious Objectors to Military Service." IRB Indexed Media Review [Ottawa] 19 Nov. 1998. Vol 17, No. 21.

 

Khramov, Nikolai Evgenevich. Member of Antimilitarist Radical Association (ARA) and Transnational Radical Party (TRP). Moscow. 26 May 1999. Personal interview.

 

Khronika Moskovskoi Khel'sinskoi gruppy. April 1999. No. 4 (46). "Samoe slozhnoe — nauchit' zhit' svobodno!" (newsletter of the Moscow Helsinki Group

 

Kuklina, Eda, Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia (CSMR). Moscow. 21 May 1999. Personal Iinterview.

 

The Moscow Times. 19 June 1999. Melissa Akin. "Duma Approves Amnesty of Convicts."

 

_____. 8 May 1999. Frank Brown. "A Right Not to Fight."

 

Nezavisimaya Gazeta. 21 May 1999a. Kufel'd, Vadim and Vladimir Muykhinr. "Likbez ot glavnogo voenkoma strany."

 

_____. 21 May 1999b. Vladimir Muykhin. "Zdorovyi prizyvnik stanovitsya reliktom."

 

Nikolsky, Valerii Dmitrevich., Member of the Freedom of Conscience Society. Moscow. 9 June 1999. Personal Iinterview.

 

PodrobinekPodrabinek, Alexander. Editor-in-chief of. Exkspress-Khronika-Chronicle. Moscow. 31 May 1999. Personal Iinterview.

 

Surokin, Sergei,. Member of Moscow Helsinki Group. Moscow. 1 June 1999. Personal Iinterview.

 

Transitions. November 1998. Victor Kalashnikov. "Discharge of the Light Brigade."

 

Xramov/Khramov, Nikolai Evgenevich. Member of Antimilitarist Radical Association (ARA) and Transnational Radical Party (TRA). Moscow. 26 May 1999. Personal Iinterview.

 

 

[1] Country Reports 1998, which describes dedovshchina as "the violent, sometimes fatal, hazing of new junior military recruits" by more senior personnel, reported that the incident of hazing increased sharply in 1998 (1999 section 1c). The same source also stated that the abuse can cause "permanent injuries and deaths" for soldiers (ibid.).