Diese Anfragebeantwortung wurde für die Veröffentlichung auf ecoi.net abgeändert.

22. April 2022

In dieser Anfragebeantwortung werden nutzergenerierte Inhalte aus dem sozialen Netzwerk Twitter angeführt. Bitte beachten Sie bei der Verwendung solcher Informationen, dass diese in vielen Fällen nicht hinreichend überprüfbar sind.

Informationen zu Aktivitäten, Operationsgebieten und Macawiisley-Anführern

Dr. Mohammed Ibrahim Shire, ein Dozent an der Universität Portsmouth, der zu Terrorismus und politischer Gewalt forscht, schreibt in einer E-Mail-Auskunft vom April 2022, dass es sich bei Macawiisley nicht um eine einheitliche Organisation mit einer klaren Hierarchie und Struktur handle. Macawiisley sei eine Dachorganisation und habe regional unterschiedliche, eigene Regeln und Bräuche. Beim Großteil der Macawiisley handle es sich um Clanmilizen. Macawiisley-Gruppen seien gegenwärtig in den Regionen Hiiraan, Lower Shabelle und Middle Shabelle aktiv. In den beiden Shabelle-Regionen gebe es ähnlich wie in Hiiraan viele verschiedene Anführer auf Subclanebene (Shire, 14. April 2022).

Im Februar 2021 postet Harun Maruf, ein Journalist von Voice of America, auf Twitter, dass die selbstorganisierten Anti-Al-Schabaab-Milizen namens Macawiisley in Teilen der Region Lower Shabelle, in der Nähe von Leego, Yaaq Bariweyne, Beled Amiin und in Gebieten rund um den Flughafen Ballidogle gesichtet worden seien. Al-Schabaab habe mit einer Gegenoffensive gegen Macawiisley begonnen. Die Milizen seien gut bewaffnet und würden Kontrollpunkte errichten, um Gelder zur Finanzierung ihrer Operationen zu beschaffen. Sie würden Geld von LKW-Lenker·innen verlangen. Zuvor seien Macawiisley in den Regionen Middle Shabelle und Hiiraan aktiv gewesen und hätten Gewinne gegenüber Al-Schabaab verzeichnet. Bei Gegenangriffen der Al-Schabaab seien einige Macawiisley-Anführer getötet worden (Maruf, 25. Februar 2021).

Eine von Mohammed Ibrahim Shire verfasste Studie vom Juli 2021 zum Verhalten der Selbstverteidigungsmilizen Ahlu Sunna Waljama’a (ASWJ) und Macawiisley enthält detaillierte Informationen zu Macawiisley. Für die Studie seien Telefoninterviews mit 30 ehemaligen und aktiven Mitgliedern von Macawiisley durchgeführt worden (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 11).

Die Selbstverteidigungsmiliz Macawiisley sei ursprünglich im Jahr 2014 von Zivilisten gebildet worden, um sich gegen exzessive „Besteuerung“, Erniedrigung und Zwangsrekrutierung von Kindern durch Al-Schabaab zu wehren (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16).

Die örtlichen Macawiisley würden ihr Territorium selbst auf ihre jeweiligen Clanzonen beschränken. So würden die Macawiisley der Clans Hawadle und Gaalje'el ihre Verteidigungsoperationen auf die Region Hiiraan, die Hochburg der Clans, beschränken. Die Macawiisley-Gruppe der Abgal würde ihre Verteidigungsoperationen auf Middle Shabelle beschränken und die kürzlich gegründete Macawiisley der Rahanweyn würde sich auf die Region Bakool beschränken. Ein Kommandant der Macawiisley in Hiiraan habe erklärt, dass es keine Kommunikation mit den Macawiisley gebe, die Heimatgebiete in Middle Shabelle verteidigen würden. Die Macawiisley in Hiiraan wüssten aber über deren Existenz Bescheid ‚und darüber, dass diese ihre Familien und ihr Vieh vor Al-Schabaab verteidigen, „aber sie kommen nicht in unsere Gebiete und wir nicht in ihre“. Ein stellvertretender Befehlshaber der Macawiisley in Middle Shabelle habe erklärt, dass ihre Aufgabe darin bestehe, ihre Familien und die Ältesten der Gemeinde vor Al-Schabaab zu verteidigen, und dass sie daher nur ihnen gegenüber eine Verantwortung tragen würden. Er habe hinzugefügt: „Da dies unsere Heimat ist, kennen wir das Gebiet in- und auswendig. Würden wir die Macawiisley in anderen Regionen unterstützen, wären wir für sie nutzlos, da wir ihr Gebiet nicht kennen“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 18).

Die Strategie der Macawiisley bestehe darin, dass die Bauern unter ihren Mitgliedern die Aufgabe hätten, die Dörfer zu verteidigen, während die Viehhirten unter ihren Mitgliedern Angriffe in der Peripherie ihrer Gebiete ausüben würden. Die Viehhirten würden aktiv nach Al-Schabaab-Einheiten suchen, die in das Gebiet ihres Clans eingedrungen seien und diese bekämpfen. Die Bauern würden den Großteil der Verteidigung gegen Al-Schabaab-Angriffe übernehmen (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 18-19).

Seit der Gründung von Macawiisley im Jahr 2014 seien lediglich Selbstverteidigungsoperationen gegen Al-Schabaab durchgeführt worden. Diese seien immer innerhalb der Grenzen ihrer Heimatgebiete erfolgt. Alle von Shire befragten Macawiisley-Mitglieder hätten betont, dass sie den Ort, an dem ihre Clan-Mitglieder leben, als ihr abgegrenztes Heimatgebiet betrachten würden. Die Durchführung von Angriffen gegen Al-Schabaab im Gebiet eines anderen Clans würde als unbefugtes Betreten betrachtet und würde zu Konflikten zwischen den Clans führen (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16).

Obwohl Macawiisley seit der Gründung informell mit der Regierung verbunden gewesen seien, habe es keine direkte staatliche Unterstützung gegeben (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 17).

Mehrere befragte Macawiisley-Mitglieder hätten betont, dass die Kämpfer hauptsächlich gegenüber Gemeinschaftsältesten verantwortlich seien. Dies verhindere missbräuchliches Verhalten, da ein Angriff auf Zivilist·innen als Angriff auf die eigene Verwandtschaft angesehen werde (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 19).

In einem Bericht aus dem Jahr 2020 von Vanda Felbab-Brown, die Senior Fellow an der Brookings Institution ist, zu Milizen und paramilitärische Gruppen in Somalia wird die Gruppe Macawiisley ebenfalls erwähnt. Diese Gruppe sei in der Region Lower Shabelle tätig. Die Gruppe sei nach den Röcken benannt, die ihre Mitglieder tragen würden. Es handle sich um eine Miliz mit 200 Mitgliedern, die Hirten und Bauern seien. In den Bezirken Hiiraan, Xunduur und Bakool in der Region Middle Shabelle seien kürzlich ebenfalls neue Milizen gebildet worden, die sich auch gegen eine Besteuerung seitens Al-Schabaabs wenden würden (Felbab-Brown, 2020, S. 129).

Im Folgenden finden Sie eine Auswahl einiger aktuellerer Vorfälle mit Beteiligung von Macawiisley, über die großteils auf Twitter berichtet wurde.

Im September 2021 sei es laut Angaben örtlicher Bewohner·innen zu einer Explosion in einem Lager der Gruppe Macawiisley in Ambareeso, Barawe gekommen. Mindestens sieben Kämpfer der Miliz seien verletzt worden (Shabelle Media Network, 23. September 2021).

Im September 2021 sei es zudem im Gebiet Jazeera in der Nähe von Mogadischu zu Kämpfen zwischen den von der Türkei ausgebildeten Haram'ad-Kräften und der regierungsfreundlichen Macawiisley-Miliz gekommen (Morad News, 3. September 2021).

Ein Journalist in Mogadischu, Mohamed Bulbul, schreibt in einem Twitter-Post vom August 2021, dass er die Ortschaft Haji Ali besucht habe, die 25 Kilometer vom Distrikt Addalle entfernt sei. Er habe sich dort mit bewaffneten Macawiisley getroffen. Alle Bewohner·innen seien bewaffnet und würden den Kampf gegen Al-Schabaab unterstützen (Bulbul, 28. August 2021).

Im Juni 2021 berichtet SomaliaNews auf Twitter, dass Kräfte der Armee Somalias und Macawiisley in der Region Middle Shabelle über 30 Al-Schabaab-Kämpfer getötet hätten (SomaliaNews, 2. Juni 2021).

Namen von Macawiisley-Anführern

Einige Quellen führen Namen von Macawiisley-Anführern an.

Hibaad Ali Dasar (auch Hibaal Cali Dasar) sei der Anführer einer Macawiisley-Gruppe in Hirshabelle gewesen (Odoros Center, 3. Oktober 2019). Er sei im Oktober 2018 gemeinsam mit seinem Stellvertreter Nuur Cali Junbur getötet worden (Cagey, 2. Oktober 2018). Laut Mohammed Ibrahim Shire seien die im Oktober 2018 getöteten Personen Hibaad und Nuur die ursprünglichen Anführer in den Shabelle-Regionen gewesen (Shire, 14. April 2022).

Mohamed Ali sei einer der Anführer in der Region Hiiraan bzw. in der Ortschaft El-Ware (RedMap Somalia, 18. September 2019).

In der Stadt Jowhar hätten Macawiisley-Kämpfer im Mai 2021 versucht, ihren Anführer Yusuf Moalim zu befreien (Mohamed, 19. Mai 2021).

In einem Twitter-Post eines Nutzers namens Abdirisak Moh'du vom Mai 2021 werden zwei getötete Personen namens Ali Ahmed Gadod und Abdikani Dubbed erwähnt. Diese hätten sich unter den mindestens zehn Toten eines Angriffs der Macawiisley auf einen Kontrollpunkt in Jowhar befunden. Es ist nicht ersichtlich, ob die genannten Personen Mitglieder von Macawiisley waren (Moh'du, 19. Mai 2021).

[Teilfragen entfernt]

Informationen zur Rekrutierung

Mohammed Ibrahim Shire erwähnt in seinem Bericht vom Juli 2021, dass sich Macawiisley in erster Linie auf engagierte einheimische Kämpfer verlasse (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16).

Die Mehrheit der frühen Macawiisley-Kämpfer seien Hirten bzw. Männer über 40 Jahre ohne militärische Ausbildung gewesen. Mehrere befragte Macawiisley-Kämpfer hätten angegeben, dass die Zivilbevölkerung in ihren Heimatdörfern angesichts der großen Angst vor Al-Schabaab anfangs nicht bereit gewesen sei, die Macawiisley materiell zu unterstützen und sich dadurch in Gefahr zu begeben. Dies habe sich jedoch geändert, als die Macawiisley damit begonnen hätten, Dörfer von Al-Schabaab zurückzuerobern. Diese Erfolge seien ein Katalysator für eine verstärkte öffentliche Unterstützung in den Regionen Hiiraan und Middle Shabelle gewesen und hätten unter den Dorfbewohnern für neue, eifrige Rekruten gesorgt, die direkt von Al-Schabaab-Aktivitäten betroffen gewesen seien (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16-17).

Es konnten keine Informationen zur Rekrutierung von Männern, die diverse Arbeiten für die Miliz durchgeführt haben bzw. berufstätig waren, gefunden werden.

Kommt es zu einer landesweiten Verfolgung durch diese Miliz, wenn man sich weigert für diese zu kämpfen?

Bitte beachten Sie auch die Informationen zu Operationsgebieten von Macawiisley-Gruppen in dieser Anfragebeantwortung.

Auf die Frage, ob ein ehemaliges Mitglied einer Macawiisley-Gruppe bei einer Rückkehr in seine Gemeinschaft mit Risiken konfrontiert sei, antwortet Mohammed Ibrahim Shire in einer E-Mail-Auskunft vom April 2022, dass das nicht wahrscheinlich sei. Solange die Person sich nicht dem Gegner, also Al-Schabaab, angeschlossen habe, sei das in Ordnung. Schließlich gehöre die Person einer Clan-Gemeinschaft an und das garantiere ihr sicheres Geleit. Es gebe keine dokumentierten Fälle, dass Macawiisley „rachsüchtig“ seien und nach ehemaligen Mitgliedern suchen würden. Es bestehe jedoch die Möglichkeit, dass die Person innerhalb ihrer Clan-Gemeinschaft als „Feigling“ wahrgenommen werde, jedoch nicht in einem Ausmaß, dass die Person mit Gewalt bedroht werden würde, wenn sie sich weigere zu kämpfen (Shire, 22. April 2022).

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 22. April 2022)

·      Bulbul, Mohamed (@MohaBulbul): Twitter Post, 28. August 2021
https://twitter.com/MohaBulbul/status/1431619984749379592

·      Cagey, M. A. (@MA_Cagey): Twitter Post, 2. Oktober 2018
https://twitter.com/MA_Cagey/status/1047056729043812352

·      Felbab-Brown, Vanda: The Problem with Militias in Somalia. In: Hybrid Conflict, Hybrid Peace: How Militias and Paramilitary Groups Shape Post-Conflict Transitions, 2020
https://i.unu.edu/media/cpr.unu.edu/post/3895/HybridConflictSomaliaWeb.pdf

·      Maruf, Harun (@HarunMaruf): Twitter Thread, 25. Februar 2021
https://twitter.com/HarunMaruf/status/1364814555570966530

·      Moh'du, Abdirisak (@Tuuryare_Africa): Twitter Post, 19. Mai 2021
https://twitter.com/Tuuryare_Africa/status/1395021141547397120

·      Mohamed, Hussein (@HussienM12): Twitter Post, 19. Mai 2021
https://twitter.com/HussienM12/status/1394981493060026376

·      Morad News (@MoradNews): Twitter Post, 3. September 2021
https://twitter.com/MoradNews/status/1433705443361181730

·      Odoros Center (@OdorosC): Twitter Post, 3. Oktober 2019
https://twitter.com/OdorosC/status/1179671100508254209

·      RedMap Somalia (@SomaliTU): Twitter Thread, 18. September 2019
https://twitter.com/SomaliTU/status/1174189171700903938

·      Shabelle Media Network: At leas[t] seven wounded in Lower Shabelle explosion, 23. September 2021
https://shabellemedia.com/at-leas-seven-wounded-in-lower-shabelle-explosion/

·      Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim: E-Mail-Nachricht, 22. April 2022

·      Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim: E-Mail-Nachricht, 14. April 2022

·      Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim: Protection or predation? Understanding the behavior of community-created self-defense militias during civil wars, 9. Juli 2021
https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/28565901/Protection_or_predation.pdf

·      SomaliaNews (@SomaliaNews252): Twitter Post, 2. Juni 2021
https://twitter.com/SomaliaNews252/status/1400023587902439424

 

Anhang: Quellenbeschreibungen und Informationen aus ausgewählten Quellen

·      Bulbul, Mohamed (@MohaBulbul): Twitter Post, 28. August 2021
https://twitter.com/MohaBulbul/status/1431619984749379592

„Last week I've visited Haji Ali Village ,25 KM away from Addalle district and met with these locally armed militias known as 'Macawisley' who control this village .All villagers are armed & committed fight against #AlShabab“ (Bulbul, 28. August 2021)

·      Cagey, M. A. (@MA_Cagey): Twitter Post, 2. Oktober 2018
https://twitter.com/MA_Cagey/status/1047056729043812352

„Hibaal Cali Dasar (red beard) lead a small band of a righteous brothers called Macawisleey who single-handed resisted the AS Khawarij for years; he was martyred yesterday along with his deputy Nuur Cali Junbur. May allah grant them the highest place in Jannah. Shuhadaa Inshallah.“ (Cagey, 2. Oktober 2018)

·      Felbab-Brown, Vanda: The Problem with Militias in Somalia. In: Hybrid Conflict, Hybrid Peace: How Militias and Paramilitary Groups Shape Post-Conflict Transitions, 2020
https://i.unu.edu/media/cpr.unu.edu/post/3895/HybridConflictSomaliaWeb.pdf

„Operating in the Lower Shabelle region, the Macawiisleey is an example of a newly constituted clan militia. Its recent formation shows clan militias are not static or necessarily long-standing. Named after the long saronglike skirts its members wear, it is a militia of some 200 men — pastoralists and farmers — who organized recently to fight al-Shabaab’s excessive taxation. Supported merely by voluntary food contributions of their community, the group has succeeded in recovering some villages from al-Shabaab. Its success is likely due to the fact that the area is not a priority for al-Shabaab, which does not have a contiguous distribution of fighters, and instead operates in pockets. Nonetheless, the Macawiisleey has managed to survive multiple battles with al- Shabaab. As a result, it attracted attention from Somali Members of Parliament who in 2019 met the group’s leadership to show their support (and take credit for its achievements). However, the sustainability of the Macawiisleey remains a major question, as the group has no support from the SNA or AMISOM; even road movement in the part of the Shabelle region where the Macawiisleey is active is currently prevented by al-Shabaab. The formation of Macawiisleey shows that key challenges in Somalia are not merely the integration and regulation of existing militias, but also the continual formation of new militia groups. For example, new militia groups have recently formed in the Hiiraan, Xunduur, and Bakool districts of the Middle Shabelle region, also to oppose al-Shabaab taxation.“ (Felbab-Brown, 2020, S. 129)

·      Maruf, Harun (@HarunMaruf): Twitter Thread, 25. Februar 2021
https://twitter.com/HarunMaruf/status/1364814555570966530

„On 17 Feb 2021 I tweeted about the emergence of self-organised, anti-Al-Shabaab militias known as Ma’awisley who have been sighted in parts of Lower Shabelle region - in the vicinity of Leego, Yaaq Bariweyne, Beled Amiin & in areas around Ballidogle airport. I’ve update on this:“

„Al-Shabaab has now launched counter-offensive against Ma’awisley and have targeted communities they suspect are supporting them, burning homes and destroying charcoal trucks. Significant number of civilians have fled to Wanlaweyn town from Yaq Bariweyne and surrounding areas.“

„Why? Al-Shabaab doesn’t want to see another force against their ideology to operate in the area. The militias are well armed; they erect checkpoints to solicit funds to fund their operations. They collect money from trucks carrying commercial goods and charcoal trucks both.“

„But commercial truckers are not happy with the militias because they don’t want to pay on top of govt taxes and AS extortions. When businesses refused to pay them the militias reportedly attacked 3 vehicles. Owners of the businesses reportedly complained to the govt and AS, both.“

„Meanwhile, one of the reasons local militias are reportedly fighting against Al-Shabaab, apart from defending their community, is because these militias themselves reportedly receive payments from charcoal business people who frequently use the area to cut trees.“

„Ironically AS has been attacking people who are cutting trees and have destroyed charcoal trucks. There are two reasons - charcoal business is partially benefiting locals including the militias. Secondly, cutting trees is leading to deforestation which denies AS jungle hideouts.“

„In other words, Ma’awisley are reportedly protecting charcoal truckers while Al-Shabaab is protecting commercial truckers, according sources. Wanlaweyn area has become a graveyard for charcoal trucks destroyed in AS attacks, with some people losing their lives.“

„Meanwhile, number of homes in Yaq Bariweyne and several smaller villages were reportedly burned down by AS. Some reports say houses caught fire from burning charcoal but others say AS torched homes deliberately to displace communities close to Ma’awisley. (This is Yaq Bariweyne)“

„Previously Ma’awisley operated in Middle Shabelle & Hiran regions and had initially scored gains against AS. But AS counter attacked and killed some of their leaders. Despite promises to support Ma’awisley by the government, local fighters haven’t attracted lot of attention.“

„Some observers are skeptical of federal level support to local militias fearing that may divert resources from building national army. But history teaches that in Somalia local forces always had some degree of success against AS. For example:“

„The now defunct Sufi militias in central Somalia, the local forces in Qoryoley, and in Mahaday in mid 2000s, the local forces in Bardale vicinity before Southwest was established. There are many who genuinely believe that local mobilisation will only benefit federal level action.“

„History also teaches us that AS struggles wherever there is a functioning local administration, even if that administration is run by a respected elder(s). If locals get federal-lever support they will be the first to defend their interests, some observers argue.“

„But the trust between Ma’awisley and federal operations was dented in recent years because AU and federal forces captured number of areas, i.e. Mahaas, El-Bur, Adan Yabaal, Tiyeglow, Fafahdhun and others, only to withdraw, which risks the lives of locals who cooperated with them.“ (Maruf, 25. Februar 2021)

·      Moh'du, Abdirisak (@Tuuryare_Africa): Twitter Post, 19. Mai 2021
https://twitter.com/Tuuryare_Africa/status/1395021141547397120

„UPDATE: At least 10 people have died, 20 more injured in fighting when Ma’awisley militias attacked a checkpoint in an attempt to free some of its members arrested in Jowhar town. Both Ali Ahmed Gadod and Abdikani Dubbed were among those who were killed in Wednesday's fighting.“ (Moh'du, 19. Mai 2021)

·      Mohamed, Hussein (@HussienM12): Twitter Post, 19. Mai 2021
https://twitter.com/HussienM12/status/1394981493060026376

“Macawisley militia have attacked Jowhar town to release their leader Yusuf Moalim from prison according to local media. Heavy fighting reported on Wednesday morning. There are casualties on both sides.” (Mohamed, 19. Mai 2021)

·      Morad News (@MoradNews): Twitter Post, 3. September 2021
https://twitter.com/MoradNews/status/1433705443361181730

„BREAKING: Fierce clashes erupt in Jazeera area in the outskirt of #Mogadishu. Reports say fighting is between Turkish trained Haram'ad forces & Pro-govt Ma'awisley militia's. Heavy weaponry can be heard. Casualties feared - Residents. #Somalia“ (Morad News, 3. September 2021)

·      Odoros Center (@OdorosC): Twitter Post, 3. Oktober 2019
https://twitter.com/OdorosC/status/1179671100508254209

„Exactly one year ago, Hibaad Ali Dasar, leader of a Ma'awisley group in Hirshabelle State, was killed by AS in a fierce battle in Bur Da'ar, an area never reached by AMISOM or SNA. His mission, still alive, represents a heavy burden -perhaps heaviest- on the insurgency group.“( Odoros Center, 3. Oktober 2019)

·      RedMap Somalia (@SomaliTU): Twitter Thread, 18. September 2019
https://twitter.com/SomaliTU/status/1174189171700903938

„At least six A-lshabaab fighters were killed after clashes with Ma'awisley (Macawisley) a local militia in Hiiraan region in central Somalia. The fighting erupted after local fighters raided al-Shabaab bases in El-Ware village.“ (RedMap Somalia, 18. September 2019)

„Speaking to a local media, Mohamed Ali, one of the Ma'awisle leaders said his fighters defeated Alshabaab militants and took over the control of the village.“ (RedMap Somalia, 18. September 2019)

·      Shabelle Media Network: At leas seven wounded in Lower Shabelle explosion, 23. September 2021
https://shabellemedia.com/at-leas-seven-wounded-in-lower-shabelle-explosion/

„An explosion has occurred in the Lower Shabelle region in southern Somalia on Thursday morning, causing casualties in parts of the region. The bomb blast struck a base in Ambareeso, a town in the southwestern port city of Barawe. Locals said the explosion took place at a camp owned by the Ma’awislay group fighting against Al-Shabaab. At least seven militia fighters were injured in the blast, according to Aden Omar Madobe, the area chief. On Wednesday, a similar explosion took place inside Marka town, the capital of the Lower Shabelle region, causing casualties including deaths and injuries.“ (Shabelle Media Network, 23. September 2021)

·      Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim: E-Mail-Nachricht, 22. April 2022

„Not likely. As long as he did not join their adversary (i.e. Al-Shabaab), he is good. In the end, he belongs to a clan community and that guarantees him a safe passage. There have been no recorded instances of Macawiisley being vindictive (like Al-Shabaab) by seeking out former members. There's a chance that he might be perceived as a 'coward' within his clan community but not to the extent that he will face violent risks if he refuses to fight.“ (Shire, 22. April 2022)

·      Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim: E-Mail-Nachricht, 14. April 2022

„Macawiisley is not a unified organisation with a clear hierarchy and structure. It's an umbrella organisation, and depending on which region you look at, have its own rules and customs. Most of them are clan militias. Presently, Macawiisley is active in Somalia's Hiiraan, Lower and Middle Shabelle regions.

Shabelle regions have multiple leaders that are delineated based on sub-clan lines, similar to Hiiraan.

The original leaders in Shabelle regions, Hibaad and Nuur were killed in October 2018, fighting against Al-Shabaab.“ (Shire, 14. April 2022)

·      Shire, Mohammed Ibrahim: Protection or predation? Understanding the behavior of community-created self-defense militias during civil wars, 9. Juli 2021
https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/28565901/Protection_or_predation.pdf

„This study draws its empirical findings from 64 in-depth telephone interviews conducted by the author between July and September 2019 with former and active members of the Macawiisley (n = 30) and ASWJ [Ahlu Sunna Waljama’a] (n = 34) self- defense militias. Interviewees were primarily stationed in the Hiiraan, Middle Shabelle, and Galgaduud regions in Somalia. Regarding their ‘military’ ranks, one commander (taliye) and two deputy commanders (taliye-ku-xigeen) were interviewed for each group. The remainder of the interviewees were fighters. Each participant was selected based on their engagement within the group“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 11)

„The Macawiisley self-defense militia was initially formed by civilians in 2014 to respond to Al-Shabaab’s excessive ‘taxes’, humiliation, and witnessing their children being forcibly recruited into Al-Shabaab’s armed machinery. Al-Shabaab extracted disproportionately high levies on harvests and zakat (Islamic alms) from pastoralists and farmers. Indeed, multiple Macawiisley respondents in Hiiraan described how Al-Shabaab forcibly took hundreds of their camels as ‘zakat’ payment and attempted to sell them in the neighboring region Galgaduud. However, given that the camels bore clan brand marks, no local clan in Galgaduud was willing to buy them, as this would inevitably lead to a clan conflict; instead, Al-Shabaab slaughtered the camels and sold the meat. Similarly, a Macawiisley commander explained that they ‘used to heavily tax us at least four times a year, especially during Islamic holidays, and told us that it was an Islamic obligation and the raised money would go toward feeding the poor, except that it never went to the poor’. Operating in parallel with taxation was forced recruitment. Al-Shabaab abducted children as young as eight and either sent them to their training facilities or, depending on the level of fighter scarcity, thrust them to the frontline. The majority of the respondents in this study highlighted that they had lost at least one child to Al-Shabaab. A deputy commander recounted that he reached a ‘breaking point’ when his eight-year-old son began ‘crying and screaming’ and that ‘he begged me to save him’. In addition to their children being forcibly recruited, many of the respondents were forced by Al-Shabaab to send their wives to an undisclosed location, every Tuesday and Saturday.“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16)

„Unable to endure Al-Shabaab’s callous tactics, dozens of villagers exchanged some of their possessions for arms and ammunition and vowed to liberate their homes from Al-Shabaab, calling themselves Macawiisley. Their remaining possessions, mainly livestock and farms, were violently usurped by Al-Shabaab as a punishment for creating a self-defense militia. Initial material support was not always forthcoming from the local populations and, in the absence of palpable victories against Al-Shabaab, Macawiisley relied primarily on dedicated homegrown fighters.“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16)

„The majority of the early Macawiisley fighters were pastoralists, comprising men above 40 with no previous military training. One Macawiisley fighter stated that, ‘Everybody knew everybody and we were all related to each other in some way or another, whether through family, marriage or being neighbors’ and that, ‘because of the existing trust and our shared experiences, we were highly motivated to fight for what was right’. Multiple Macawiisley respondents revealed that, given the heightened fear of Al-Shabaab in their home villages, civilians there did not want to imperil themselves by providing Macawiisley with material support, but that changed when they ‘started recovering villages from Al-Shabaab’. These successes were the catalyst for increased public support in the Hiiraan and Middle Shabelle regions and the addition of fresh, eager recruits of villagers directly affected by Al-Shabaab’s rule.“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 16-17)

However, ordinary civilians paid a hefty price for providing support to Macawiisley. At times, Al-Shabaab tried to curtail the growing popular support for Macawiisley by engaging in summary executions and mass kidnappings/imprisonment of civilians that supported Macawiisley, and staged civilian protests denouncing the militia. As recently as February 2020, Al-Shabaab burned homes in Yaaq Bariweyne and several smaller villages, for supporting a new branch of Macawiisley in Lower Shabelle. In response, Macawiisley conducted regular prison raids to free their civilian supporters. Although Macawiisley, from its inception, was informally aligned to the government, state sponsorship was not directly forthcoming. The Somali government somewhat tolerated the militia, providing scant resources (i.e. food supplies), but official state support was mostly absent. Knowing that they could not expand without strong state support, Macawiisley made several pleas for official support to sustain their anti-Al-Shabaab operations, but felt it was entirely ignored by the Somali government. The group’s members emphasized this lack of support from the government (and the international community) in interviews conducted by Somali media outlets. Several Somali parliamentarians who visited the militia (as part of photo opportunities and to claim credit for their achievements) publicly criticized the government’s rebuff of the group, stressing that Macawiisley relied on community support and would be unable to expand its operations in the long run. (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 17)

„Since Macawiisley’s formation in 2014, the group has not strayed beyond self-defense operations against Al-Shabaab, and always within the confines of their home territory. All Macawiisley respondents emphasized that they consider where their clan members live to be their home territory and boundaries. Indeed, Somalis are mainly transhumant pastoralists and have traditionally established indicative border lines that define the contours of their imagined clan boundaries. Carrying out attacks against Al-Shabaab in another clan’s territory is considered an act of trespass, leading to inter-clan conflict.“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 17-18)

„As such, localized Macawiisley militias have restricted the scope of their territory to their respective clan zones. For instance, Hawadle and Gaalje’el Macawiisley confine their defensive operations to the Hiiraan region, the clans’ stronghold, while the Abgal Macawiisley restricts their sphere of defensive operations to Middle Shabelle, and the recently created Rahanweyn Macawiisley limits their defensive operations to the Bakool region. A Macawiisley commander in Hiiraan explained that they ‘do not have any communication with the Macawiisley defending their home territory in Middle Shabelle’, but that they were aware ‘that they exist and that they are defending their families and livestock from Al-Shabaab, but they do not enter our areas and we do not enter theirs’. Similarly, a deputy Macawiisley commander in Middle Shabelle remarked that their mission is to defend their families and community elders from Al-Shabaab; such, they answer only to them. He further added that, ‘Since this is our home, we know the area inside out, whereas if we supported the Macawiisley in other regions, we would be useless to them as we do not know their territory’. (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 18)

„As a result of adopting a defensive approach, Macawiisley devised a unique security strategy whereby Macawiisley farmers were tasked with defending the villages while pastoralists conducted defensive attacks from the periphery of their clan’s borders. The pastoralist members of Macawiisley often walk for hours actively seeking out Al-Shabaab units that have entered their clan territory and directly engage or ambush them. For instance, on May 28 2015, two Macawiisley units left Buloburde town in Hiiraan and walked to Al-Shabaab-occupied villages, with one unit attacking Buurweyne village (30 km northwest of Buloburde), and the second unit attacking Af’ad (31 km southeast of Buloburde). They briefly captured the villages, stole guns from fleeing Al-Shabaab members, and then returned to Buloburde. The group was equally successful in liberating their home villages from Al-Shabaab. Macawiisley farmers, on the other hand, formed the majority of the defense against incoming Al-Shabaab aggression. For instance, in October 2014, Al-Shabaab occupied a farming village near the Mahaaday district in Middle Shabelle and, as part of their racketeering scheme, levied fees on sales of agriculture produce in the town. Macawiisley farmer villagers launched an attack that resulted in Al-Shabaab vacating the village. A similar occurrence was observed in Hiiraan, where Al-Shabaab instigated an attack on farming villages between Buloburde and Jalaqsi in November 2014, but failed to make inroads because of Macawiisley farmers. (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 18-19)

„The unique defensive core–periphery strategy adopted by the Macawiisley pastoralists and farmers, coupled with the organic community support and oversight, has enabled them to stick to their founding objective of protecting the community from Al-Shabaab and, thus, avoid predation. Multiple Macawiisley respondents emphasized that their fighters are bound by local accountability, primarily from community elders, that ensures they avoid abusive behavior because ‘attacking civilians is like attacking your family relatives’. Virtually all of their equipment, food, and legitimacy are derived from their respective local communities. This observation was confirmed by third-party actors, including Somali military commanders and diaspora members, who were impressed with the militia’s lack of civilian targeting. Much like the proverbial incentive not to ‘bite the hand that feeds you’, Macawiisley members were acutely aware of losing popular support if they abandoned local customs and norms and exploited the communities that had morally and physically supported them.“ (Shire, 9. Juli 2021, S. 19)

·      SomaliaNews (@SomaliaNews252): Twitter Post, 2. Juni 2021
https://twitter.com/SomaliaNews252/status/1400023587902439424

„Combined forces of SNA [Somali National Army] and Macawisley kills more than 30 fighters from Harakada Shabaab in Middle Shabelle Region #Somalia #Mogadishu“ (SomaliaNews, 2. Juni 2021)