Anfragebeantwortung zum Sudan: Verbreitung von FGM, rechtliche Bestimmungen und Organisationen [a-11195-6]

7. April 2020

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Vorbemerkung

Daten zur Verbreitung von FGM werden regelmäßig in größer angelegten Umfragen in Entwicklungsländern abgefragt, hauptsächlich mittels der von der U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) finanzierten Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) und der Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) des UNO-Kinderhilfswerks UNICEF.

Die aktuellsten Berichte zum Sudan, das MICS 2014 und das Sudan Household Health Survey 2010, enthalten Daten aus den Jahren 2014 und 2010. Eine im Juni 2016 veröffentlichte Sekundäranalyse von UNICEF greift zudem auf erhobene Rohdaten der MICS-Umfragen zurück. (vgl. 28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 9)

Verbreitung

Den MICS-Daten von 2014[1] zufolge seien 86,6 Prozent der Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren von FGM betroffen (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214). Den Daten von 2010[2] zufolge seien damals 88 Prozent der Frauen derselben Altersgruppe betroffen gewesen (Federal Ministry of Health, Dezember 2012, S. 198). Der in England und Wales registrierten auf den Kampf gegen FGM spezialisierten Hilfsorganisation 28 Too Many zufolge würden diese Daten auf einen geringen und langsam erfolgenden Rückgang der Praxis innerhalb der vergangenen Jahre hinweisen. Vergleiche der Daten aus den Jahren 2010 und 2014 sollten jedoch mit Vorsicht erfolgen, da die unterschiedliche Verbreitung von FGM durch die in den vergangenen Jahren erfolgte Massenmigration im Land verkompliziert werde. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 46)

Bei der Altersgruppe der 15- bis 19-Jährigen liege die Verbreitung bei 81,7 Prozent, im Gegensatz zur Altersgruppe der 45- bis 49-Jährigen mit 91,8 Prozent (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 215, Tabelle CP.10). Dies spreche dafür, dass die Praxis rascher abnehme, als es bei einer Heranziehung lediglich der gesamten Verbreitungsrate scheine (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 47).

Bei den Töchtern unter 15 Jahren betrage die Verbreitungsrate bei der Altersgruppe der Zehn- bis 14-Jährigen 69 Prozent, bei den Fünf- bis Neunjährigen 31,5 Prozent und bei den Unter-Fünfjährigen 4,3 Prozent. Hier müsse aber bedacht werden, dass es sich dabei um den gegenwärtigen und nicht den endgültigen FGM-Status handle, da viele davon zum Zeitpunkt der Umfrage das traditionelle Alter für FGM noch nicht erreicht gehabt hätten. (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 215–216)

Unter den Frauen ohne formale Bildung seien den Daten von 2014 zufolge 76,8 Prozent von FGM betroffen, während 91,8 Prozent der Frauen mit höherer Bildung beschnitten seien. Überraschenderweise sei die Praxis in wohlhabenden Haushalten weit verbreitet, mit 91,6 Prozent im reichsten Quintil und 90 Prozent im zweitreichsten Quintil. (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214)

28 Too Many zufolge sei dies bemerkenswert, da in den meisten afrikanischen Ländern, in denen FGM praktiziert werde, die Verbreitung gewöhnlicherweise in Richtung ärmerer Quintile steige (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 49).

Der Bericht von 28 Too Many vom November 2019 enthält folgende auf den Daten des MICS von 2014 beruhende Karte zur regionalen Verbreitung von FGM:

[Bild entfernt] (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 48)

Wissenstand und Haltung zu FGM

Insgesamt hätten 96,3 Prozent der Frauen von FGM gehört. Davon seien 40,9 Prozent der Frauen für eine Fortführung von FGM, während 52,8 Prozent für ein Ende der Praxis eintreten würden. Im Bundesstaat Ost-Darfur seien 64,4 Prozent für eine Fortführung, während in Khartum nur 24 Prozent dafür seien. 16,9 Prozent der Frauen mit höherer Bildung seien für die Fortführung im Gegensatz zu 55 Prozent der Frauen ohne formale Bildung. (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 217–218, Tabelle CP.12)

Alter bei Durchführung des Eingriffs und Formen von FGM

FGM werde im Allgemeinen bei Mädchen im Alter zwischen vier und 14 Jahren durchgeführt, zudem werde FGM bei Kleinkindern, Frauen, die vor einer Eheschließung stehen und manchmal auch bei erstmals schwangeren Frauen oder solchen, die gerade eine Geburt gehabt hätten, durchgeführt. (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214)

63,7 Prozent der Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren seien den Daten von 2014 zufolge im Alter zwischen fünf und neun Jahren einer Genitalverstümmelung unterzogen worden. Nur 0,4 Prozent der Frauen seien im Alter von 15 Jahren oder später beschnitten worden. (UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 18)

Bei 16,3 Prozent der von FGM betroffenen Frauen sei den Daten von 2014 zufolge Gewebe entfernt worden, 2,2 Prozent seien eingeschnitten worden und bei 77 Prozent sei die Vaginalregion zugenäht worden. Bei 4,5 Prozent konnte die Form der Genitalverstümmelung nicht festgestellt werden (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214, Tabelle CP.10).

Reinfibulation

28 Too Many beruft sich zudem auf Rohdaten aus dem MICS 2014 zur Reinfibulation (auch bekannt als adal). Dabei handle es sich um ein erneutes Zunähen der Vaginalregion nach einer Geburt. Dies könne mehrmals im Leben einer verheirateten Frau erfolgen. 23,9 Prozent der jemals verheirateten Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren, die mindestens eine Geburt hinter sich hätten, seien davon betroffen. Es gebe hier jedoch große Unterschiede zwischen den verschiedenen Bundesstaaten. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 54; vgl. UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 27–31; vgl. BBC News, 19. Dezember 2019)

Medikalisierung von FGM

Eine Analyse der MICS-Daten ergebe, dass hinsichtlich FGM eine „Medikalisierung“ stattfinde. Der Anteil der Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren, die von ausgebildeten GeburtshelferInnen beschnitten worden seien, sei von 55,4 Prozent im Zeitraum zwischen 1966 und 1979 auf 76 Prozent in den Jahren zwischen 2000 und 2014 gestiegen. Im selben Zeitraum sei der Anteil der von traditionellen BeschneiderInnen beschnittenen Frauen von 39,1 Prozent auf 18,4 Prozent zurückgegangen. (UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 24)

FGM werde den MICS-Daten von 2014 zufolge Großteils von ausgebildeten GeburtshelferInnen (bei 63,6 Prozent der betroffenen Frauen) und traditionellen BeschneiderInnen (28,7 Prozent) durchgeführt. Andere im Gesundheitsbereich beschäftigte Personen hätten die Genitalverstümmelung bei 3,2 Prozent der betroffenen Frauen durchgeführt (UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 24). FGM erfolge oft ohne Betäubung und unter Anwendung von Scheren, Rasierklingen oder zerbrochenem Glas (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214).

Nationale Gesetzgebung

Es gebe mit Stand November 2019 kein landesweit gültiges Gesetz, das FGM verbiete, jedoch gebe es landesweit gültige Gesetze, die auf Zufügung von Schaden und den Schutz von Kindern Bezug nehmen würden, etwa das Strafgesetz (Criminal Act) von 1991 und das Kindergesetz von 2010 (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31).

Abschnitt 138 des Strafgesetzes (Criminal Act) von 1991 definiert unter anderem den Verlust eines Organs oder der Sinne als Zufügung von Wunden. Abschnitt 139 sieht für die Zufügung von absichtlichen Wunden Strafen vor, darunter Vergeltung (Qisas) oder eine maximal fünfjährige Haftstrafe und/oder eine Geldstrafe. Die Abschnitte 140 und 141 sehen Strafen für die Zufügung von „halb-absichtlichen“ (semi-intentional) und „unbeabsichtigten“ (wounds by mistake) Wunden vor. (Criminal Act, 1991, Abschnitte 138-141)

Abschnitt 142 definiert die Verursachung von Schmerz oder Erkrankung als Zufügung von Schaden („hurt“) und sieht eine maximal sechsmonatige Haftstrafe und/oder eine Geldstrafe vor. (Criminal Act, 1991, Abschnitt 142)

Artikel 5 des Kindergesetzes von 2010 schützt Kinder vor allen Typen und Formen der Gewalt, Verletzung, unmenschlicher Behandlung oder körperlichen, ethischen oder sexuellen Missbrauch oder Vernachlässigung oder Ausbeutung (The Child Act, 2010, Artikel 5 (2) (k)). Mit dem Gesetzesentwurf zum Kindergesetz sei 2007 begonnen worden. 2009 sei vorgeschlagen worden einen Artikel zur expliziten Kriminalisierung aller Formen von FGM aufzunehmen. Jedoch habe der Präsident nach Einsprüchen seitens religiöser Führer, dass der Artikel gegen die Scharia verstoße, die Herausnahme verfügt. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32)

Im September 2016 habe der Ministerrat eine Gesetzesänderung des Strafgesetzes von 1991 bestätigt. Nach dem neuen Artikel 141 würden alle Formen von FGM verboten werden. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31)

Im Jahr 2018 seien zwar Fortschritte bei der Verabschiedung von Artikel 141 erzielt worden. Politische Ausschreitungen im Sudan hätten die Verabschiedung des Artikels 141 jedoch verzögert. (UNFPA-UNICEF, August 2019, S. 17)

Mit Stand November 2019 sei diese noch nicht erfolgt. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31)

Konkrete Gesetzgebung

Mit Stand November 2019 gebe es im Sudan kein konkretes nationales Gesetz gegen FGM. Bislang hätten sechs Bundesstaaten FGM-Gesetze verabschiedet, die innerhalb ihrer Grenzen gültig seien. Dabei handle es sich um die Bundesstaaten Süd-Kordofan, Gadarif, Süd-Darfur, Red Sea, Nord-Kordofan und Northern. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31)

Dem Jahresbericht zur Menschenrechtslage des US-Außenministeriums (Berichtszeitraum 2019) zufolge seien seit 2008 in fünf Bundesstaaten ein gesetzliches Verbot von FGM verabschiedet worden, nämlich in Süd-Kordofan, Gedaref, Red Sea, Süd-Darfur und West-Darfur. (USDOS, 11. März 2020, Section 6)

Einige religiöse Anführer würden die „Sunna-Beschneidung“ (beinhaltet die teilweise Entfernung oder die Entfernung der externen Klitoris insgesamt) befürworten und behaupten, eine Kriminalisierung widerspreche der Scharia. Dies sei eine Herausforderung bei der Verabschiedung einer umfassenden Gesetzgebung im Land. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32)

In den Bundesstaaten Süd-Kordofan, Gadarif und Süd-Darfur seien Gesetze gegen FGM verabschiedet worden (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32). Das Gesetz in Süd-Kordofan sehe Haftstrafen zwischen drei und zehn Jahren sowie Entschädigungszahlungen vor, das Gesetz von Gadarif eine maximal sechsmonatige Haftstrafe und/oder eine Geldstrafe von nicht weniger als 100 SDG (etwa 1,6 Euro, Anm. ACCORD) ungeachtet etwaiger verfügbarer zivilrechtlicher Entschädigungszahlungen. Das Gesetz von Süd-Darfur enthalte keine Bestimmungen zu Strafen. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 33)

Im Bundesstaat Red Sea sei ein Verbot der schwersten Form von FGM, Infibulation, in Artikel 10 des Kindergesetzes von 2011 vorgesehen. Das Gesundheitsministerium müsse jedoch dazu noch ein Dekret erlassen, deswegen sei dieses Gesetz bislang noch nicht voll umgesetzt (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32). Zudem enthalte das Gesetz keine Bestimmungen zu vorgesehenen Strafen. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 33)

2018 seien in Nord-Kordofan und in Northern Gesetze gegen FGM erlassen worden. 28 Too Many erwähnt, dass der Inhalt der Gesetze der Organisation bislang nicht zugänglich gewesen sei. In White Nile sei ein Gesetz gegen FGM dem Legislativrat vorgelegt worden, während in den Bundesstaaten Blue Nile und Nord-Darfur weiterhin Lobbyarbeit zu neuen Gesetzen erfolgt sei. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32)

Umsetzung der Gesetze

Die Umsetzung der Gesetze auf Ebene der Bundesstaaten sei einem Bericht von UNFPA und UNICEF zufolge im Jahr 2018 weiterhin schwer erfassbar gewesen (UNFPA-UNICEF, August 2019, S. 100).

28 Too Many zufolge gebe es keine Berichte über Verhaftungen oder Gerichtsverfahren wegen FGM. Zudem gebe es keine Hinweise, dass das Strafgesetz von 1991 in Zusammenhang mit FGM zur strafrechtlichen Verfolgung angewendet werde. Es gebe Anhaltspunkte dafür, dass die Gesetze insgesamt nicht durchgesetzt würden oder nur in sehr geringem Ausmaß. Obwohl es weiterhin Berichte dazu gebe, dass Mädchen nach einer Genitalverstümmelung sterben, seien keine bekannteren Fälle („high-profile cases“) in den vergangenen Jahren vor Gericht gebracht worden. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 34)

Mit dem Thema FGM befasste Organisationen

Der National Council for Child Welfare (NCCW) ist eine Regierungsbehörde, die insbesondere beim Thema FGM mit UNFPA und UNICEF zusammenarbeitet und Aktivitäten zur Wohlfahrt von Kindern plant und koordiniert (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 99). Die Website der Behörde findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      NCCW - National Council for Child Welfare: Child Protection Minimum Standards (CPMS), ohne Datum
http://www.nccw.gov.sd/pageen.php?page=95

Die Saleema Initiative ist eine der von NCCW koordinierten und unter anderem von den Vereinten Nationen finanzierte Initiative, die sich für ein Ende von FGM im Sudan einsetzt (UNFPA-UNICEF, August 2019, S. 102; 28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 100). Das Twitter-Profil der Initiative findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      Saleema Initiative: Twitter-Profil, ohne Datum
https://twitter.com/bornsaleema?lang=de

Als weitere Initiativen nennt 28 Too Many die Kampagne Almawada wa Alrahma, die Initiative Wa Man Ahyaha und die Kampagne Khaloha (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 100). Zu diesen Initiativen konnten keine Kontaktadressen gefunden werden.

Das Youth Peer Education Network (Y-PEER) befasst sich ebenfalls mit dem Thema FGM (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 102). Das Facebook-Profil des Netzwerks findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      Y-PEER - Youth Peer Education Network Sudan: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum
https://www.latest.facebook.com/ypeersudan/

Das Programm AnaLan der Organisation Institute for Reproductive Health and Rights (IRHR) setzt sich ebenso für ein Ende von FGM ein (IRHR, ohne Datum; vgl. 28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 102). Das Facebook-Profil von AnaLan findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      AnaLan: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum
https://www.facebook.com/AnaLanSudan/

Die Ahfad University for Women (AUW) wird als Partner des gemeinsamen Programms von UNFPA und UNICEF gegen FGM genannt (UNFPA, August 2018, S. 68, vgl. AUW, 28. Jänner 2016, S. 10). Die Website der Universität findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      AUW - Ahfad University for Women: Contact Us, ohne Datum
http://www.ahfad.edu.sd/index.php/contact-us

Folgende Dokumente enthalten weitere allgemeine Informationen zu FGM im Sudan:

·      OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: SIGI - Social Institutions & Gender Index 2019 - Sudan, Dezember 2018
https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/SD.pdf

·      Terre Des Femmes: FGM in Afrika; Sudan, Dezember 2019
https://www.frauenrechte.de/unsere-arbeit/themen/weibliche-genitalverstuemmelung/unser-engagement/aktivitaeten/genitalverstuemmelung-in-afrika/fgm-in-afrika/1431-sudan

·      UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation: Accelerating Change Annual Report 2018, August 2019
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/19-152-UNJP-FGM-AR2018-Aug2019.pdf

·      UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund: Female Genital Mutilation Dashboard (FGM) – Sudan, ohne Datum
https://www.unfpa.org/data/fgm/SD

·      UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund: Female Genital Mutilation: A New Generation Calls for Ending an Old Practice, 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FGM-a-new-generation-calls-for-ending-an-old-practice_2020.pdf

·      UNICEF – UN Children's Fund: Sudan; Statistical Profile on Female Genital Mutilation, Jänner 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Sudan/FGM_SDN.pdf

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 7. April 2020)

·      28 Too Many: Country Profile: FGM in Sudan, November 2019
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Research%20and%20Resources/Sudan/sudan_country_profile_v1_(november_2019).pdf

·      AnaLan: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum
https://www.facebook.com/AnaLanSudan/

·      AUW - Ahfad University for Women: Contact Us, ohne Datum
http://www.ahfad.edu.sd/index.php/contact-us

·      BBC News: Sudanese brides under pressure to have FGM - again, 19. Dezember 2019 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-49580860

·      Criminal Act 1991 (Unofficial English Translation), 1991 (verfügbar auf Natlex-Datenbank)
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/80450/118284/F-1325877900/SDN80450%20Eng.pdf

·      Federal Ministry of Health, Central Bureau of Statistics: Sudan Household Health Survey - Round 2; 2010; National Report, Dezember 2012
https://mics-surveys-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/MICS4/Middle%20East%20and%20North%20Africa/Sudan/2010/Final/Sudan%202010%20MICS_English.pdf

·      Ministry of Cabinet, Central Bureau Of Statistics: Sudan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2014; Final Report, April 2015
https://mics-surveys-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/MICS5/Middle%20East%20and%20North%20Africa/Sudan/2014/Final/Sudan%202014%20MICS_English.pdf

·      NCCW - National Council for Child Welfare: Child Protection Minimum Standards (CPMS), ohne Datum
http://www.nccw.gov.sd/pageen.php?page=95

·      OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: SIGI - Social Institutions & Gender Index 2019 - Sudan, Dezember 2018
https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/SD.pdf

·      Saleema Initiative: Twitter-Profil, ohne Datum
https://twitter.com/bornsaleema?lang=de

·      Terre Des Femmes: FGM in Afrika; Sudan, Dezember 2019
https://www.frauenrechte.de/unsere-arbeit/themen/weibliche-genitalverstuemmelung/unser-engagement/aktivitaeten/genitalverstuemmelung-in-afrika/fgm-in-afrika/1431-sudan

·      The Child Act, 2010 (verfügbar auf Citizenship Rights Africa)
http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Sudan-Child-Act-2010-Part-1.pdf

·      UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund: Female Genital Mutilation Dashboard (FGM) – Sudan, ohne Datum
https://www.unfpa.org/data/fgm/SD

·      UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation: Accelerating Change Annual Report 2018, August 2019
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/19-152-UNJP-FGM-AR2018-Aug2019.pdf

·      UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and child marriage in Sudan: Are there any changes taking place?; In depth analysis using multiple indicators cluster surveys (MICS) and Sudan health surveys (SHHS), Juni 2016
https://www.unicef.org/sudan/media/1071/file/Female-Genital-Mutilation-Cutting-Child-Marriage-Sudan-2016.pdf

·      UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund: Female Genital Mutilation: A New Generation Calls for Ending an Old Practice, 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FGM-a-new-generation-calls-for-ending-an-old-practice_2020.pdf

·      UNICEF – UN Children's Fund: Sudan; Statistical Profile on Female Genital Mutilation, Jänner 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Sudan/FGM_SDN.pdf

·      USDOS – US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2019 - Sudan, 11. März 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2026413.html

·      Y-PEER - Youth Peer Education Network Sudan: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum
https://www.latest.facebook.com/ypeersudan/

Anhang: Zugrunde liegende Originalzitate aus Quellen

·      28 Too Many: Country Profile: FGM in Sudan, November 2019
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Research%20and%20Resources/Sudan/sudan_country_profile_v1_(november_2019).pdf

„Statistics on the prevalence of FGM are regularly compiled through large-scale household surveys in developing countries, predominantly the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS). For Sudan, a MICS report was published in 2014. A Sudan Household Health Survey was published in 2010. Both reports contain data on FGM and are referred to as the MICS 2014 and the SHHS 2010, respectively, throughout this Country Profile. Neither includes data on South Sudan.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 9)

„A further valuable source of information on FGM in Sudan is the report Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) and Child Marriage in Sudan – Are There Any Changes Taking Place???, referred to as the Secondary Analysis throughout this document. This secondary analysis of the MICS and SHHS data revisits the raw data from the 2014 and 2010 surveys and includes results, analyses and predictions that were not published in the original reports; for example on adal, or reinfibulation“(28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 9)

„The SHHS 2010 found a prevalence of 88% among women aged 15–49. This suggests that there has been a small reduction in the practice among women in recent years, although progress has been slow. However, understanding how the prevalence of FGM has changed over time is complicated by the mass migration that has occurred in the country’s recent history, meaning that trends arising from direct comparisons between 2014 and 2010 should be treated with some caution.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 46)

„This is noteworthy because in the majority of African countries where FGM is practised, the prevalence is usually higher in each subsequently poorer wealth quintile.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 49)

„Data from the MICS 2014 reveals a distinct trend towards lower FGM prevalence among younger women (see Figure 4).The highest prevalence (91.8%) is among women aged 45–49 and the lowest (81.7%) is among those aged 15–19. 7 This suggests that the practice is declining at a faster rate than might be apparent from considering only the overall prevalence.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 47)

„Reinfibulation (also known as adal) is the process of re-sewing the genitals following childbirth, and it may be done repeatedly during the lifetime of a married woman. While it is not as prevalent as initial FGM, reinfibulation affects a significant proportion of Sudanese women. The MICS 2014 measured the prevalence of reinfibulation in Sudan for the first time in a population-scale survey and found that it is performed on around one in four (23.9%) ever-married women aged 15–49 who have ever given birth. The prevalence of reinfibulation in ever-married women who had given birth in the 12 months prior to the survey was 23.6%, suggesting that, unfortunately, the extent of the practice has barely changed in recent times. The prevalence of reinfibulation is broadly similar among women living in urban areas (22.6%) and those living in rural (24.4%) areas, although there are wide variations by state, as shown in Figure 11.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 54)

„There is currently no national law against FGM covering the whole of Sudan. To date, six states have put laws in place that only apply to FGM undertaken within their boundaries: South Kordofan, Gadarif, South Darfur, Red Sea, North Kordofan and Northern.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31)

Although in 1946 Sudan was the first country in Africa to criminalise Type III FGM (‘infibulation’), the article was subsequently removed from the Penal Code following the introduction of Sharia law in 1983. More recently, in September 2016, an amendment to the Criminal Act (1991) was approved by the Council of Ministers to criminalise all forms of FGM under a new Article 141; at the time of writing it is still pending endorsement by parliament. The UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme to Eliminate FGM (UNJP) reports that in 2018, following its endorsement by the Council of Ministers, Article 141 was passed to the Health and Legal Committee for revision (although further details are unavailable and political unrest since has caused delay to its progress).6 “(28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31)

„In the absence of national legislation criminalising FGM, there are laws that refer to causing harm to another person and the protection of children that are applicable across Sudan: Criminal Act (1991)7 Section 138 defines ‘wounds’ inflicted on another person (both ‘intentional’ or ‘semi-intentional’) to include the loss of an organ or any of the senses and sets out the penalties for committing the offence. Section 142 defines ‘hurt’ as causing pain to another person and is punishable accordingly.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31)

„Child Act (2010)8 – Chapter II, Article 5 protects children (under 18 years of age) from all forms of violence, harm and physical and psychological abuse; sub-section (2)(k) specifically states, ‘This Act ensures the protection of a male, or female Child, against all types and forms of violence, injury, inhuman treatment, or bodily, ethical or sexual abuse, or neglect or exploitation.’ The drafting of this law was started in 2007, and in 2009 it was proposed to include an Article 13 that would explicitly criminalise all forms of FGM. However, following subsequent representations by religious leaders claiming this article was against Sharia, the president ordered its removal.“ (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 31–32)

„The following states have attempted to criminalise FGM:

 South Kordofan (FGM prevalence 88.8%) the first Sudanese state to adopt legislation. The Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation Act (2008) 10 places responsibility on parents and guardians to protect girls (up to 18 years of age) from FGM. Reporting incidents of FGM is the responsibility of all. This law also provides for the payment of compensation to the victim of FGM by the person who performed the act.

Gadarif (FGM prevalence 78.5%) the second state to introduce a law. Under Article 13 of the Child Law 2009, all harmful traditional practices (including FGM) are prohibited. This is applicable to all forms of FGM.11

South Darfur (FGM prevalence 88.2%) under Article 11 of the South Darfur State Child Act 2013, all forms of FGM are prohibited.12

Red Sea (FGM prevalence 89%) the Red Sea succeeded in introducing a law in 2007 prohibiting all forms of FGM, only for it to be repealed following protests from the Beja ethnic group.13 Following the death of an infant girl from FGM in 2009, pressure to criminalise the practice increased again and the Child Act 2011 reportedly included the potential under Article 10 for FGM prohibition, although only for the most severe type (infibulation, also known as ‘pharaonic circumcision’ in Sudan). The Ministry of Health, however, has yet to issue a decree; hence, to date, the law has still not been fully enacted.14

Most recently, in 2018, both North Kordofan (FGM prevalence 97.7%) and Northern state (97.5%) passed laws banning FGM, although content was not available to 28 Too Many at the time of writing.

According to the most recent UNJP report, White Nile (FGM prevalence 93.7%) also submitted to its legislative council a state law banning FGM. Advocacy work around new state laws also continued in Blue Nile (68.0%) and North Darfur (97.6%).15 “(28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32)

„Examples of penalties in individual state laws include: South Kordofan The Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation Act (2008) includes a range of penalties, from three years’ imprisonment and compensation payable to the victim, to up to ten years’ imprisonment and compensation payable to the victim’s family in the case of the victim’s death. Gadarif The Child Law 2009 stipulates a maximum of 6 months’ imprisonment or a fine of not less than 100 SDG (approximately US$5.50) 18 , or both, but without prejudice to any civil compensation that may be available. It also stipulates that the court concerned may give part of the fine to the victim. South Darfur – The Child Act 2013 does not include a provision for penalties. Red Sea The Child Act 2011 does not include a provision for penalties. (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 33)

„While there are no customary laws surrounding FGM in Sudan, some religious leaders support sunna cutting (which includes partial or total removal of the external clitoris) and claim that criminalising it would be against Sharia. This has been a clear challenge to the passing of comprehensive legislation in Sudan.” (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 32)

„Nationally, there are no specific penalties in Sudan for practising FGM. The Criminal Act (1991) sets out the following penalties for causing ‘wounds’ or ‘hurt’: Section 139 anyone causing intentional wounds to another person is subject to punishment of up to five years imprisonment, or a fine, or both; Section 140 anyone causing semi-intentional wounds to another person is subject to punishment of up to three years imprisonment, or a fine, or both; and Section 142 anyone causing hurt to another person is subject to punishment of up to six months’ imprisonment, or a fine, or both. “(28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 33)

„There are no reported cases of arrests or court proceedings in relation to FGM, nor is there evidence of the Criminal Act (1991) being used to prosecute perpetrators of FGM. Enforcement across the six states that have attempted to criminalise FGM has varied to date. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the laws are either not enforced at all or only to a very limited extent. Even through there are still reports of girls dying following FGM, no high-profile cases have been brought to court under state laws in recent years. Back in 2009, local media reported that a 40-dayold girl died after being cut in the Red Sea state. Although the case was reported to the police, the family refused to give the name of the midwife responsible for the act.19 According to the UNJP, advocacy efforts continue across states to ensure that there is political commitment to the enforcement of laws where they are already in place.“(28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 34)

The National Council for Child Welfare (NCCW) is the government authority that plans and coordinates work regarding child welfare across Sudan and, specific to FGM, works in collaboration with the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme to Eliminate FGM (UNJP). The NCCW was established in 1991 in response to the ratification of child-related international and regional conventions such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The National Strategy to Combat Female Genital Mutilation 2008–2018 was launched as a partnership between government and civil-society organisations to address the religious, health, social and cultural aspects of FGM.1 The coordination of stakeholders and efforts to end FGM are undertaken by the NCCW at all levels in Sudan. The NCCW was initially formalised at national task-force level in 2014 and then across all 18 states in 2015. Local task forces have been setting up since 2016.”(28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 99)

As the UN agencies recently entered Phase III of the UNJP (2018—2021), commitments were renewed to continue creating an environment that enabled the abandonment of FGM through policy and legislation; by mobilising and empowering communities to change social norms driving FGM; by supporting access to comprehensive services; and by building a high-quality evidence base to support the work. To this end, the WHO is a key partner in Sudan, identifying gaps in knowledge and tackling key challenges such as medicalisation. Work to end FGM in Sudan funded through the SFFGC and the UNJP is coordinated through the NCCW and includes the following initiatives: The Saleema Initiative (see page 58); the Almawada wa Alrahma (Compassion and Mercy) campaign, addressing rights and tackling violence against women and girls from a religious perspective; the Wa Man Ahyaha (And who revived it) initiative for communities to acknowledge and understand women’s and girls’ rights and harmful practices that affect their reproductive health4 ; and the Khaloha (Leave her) campaign, launched in 2018 to provide media training and produce songs, television and radio messages, animations, articles and television and radio shows. 5” (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 100)

The Youth Peer Education Network (YPEER) conducts training and information workshops in partnership with government departments on key topics such as reproductive health, GBV, child marriage and FGM. The Institute for Reproductive Health and Rights (IRH&R), a not-for-profit organisation, also promotes reproductive and sexual-health rights, with a particular focus on women, girls, youth and minority groups. Current programmes include the Sudan Free of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (Khitan), which mobilises and empowers young people to advocate for an end to FGM through the Analan Sudanese Youth Initiative, which was launched in 2014. Workshops and discussion forums are used to raise awareness and disseminate information. Analan also uses traditional and social media in its advocacy work.” (28 Too Many, November 2019, S. 102)

·      AUW - Ahfad University for Women: Communication on Engagement, 28. Jänner 2016
http://www.ahfad.edu.sd/images/pdfs/AUW-COE--Report-2016.pdf

“Encouraging the development of programs and projects that allow AUW to maximize its civic engagement, offering space to staff promotion and self-education via participation in projects of eradicating harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, promotion of reproductive health, visionary leadership, disseminating culture of peace, raising awareness on good governance and democracy principles.” (AUW, 28. Jänner 2016, S. 10)

·      Federal Ministry of Health, Central Bureau of Statistics: Sudan Household Health Survey - Round 2; 2010; National Report, Dezember 2012
https://mics-surveys-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/MICS4/Middle%20East%20and%20North%20Africa/Sudan/2010/Final/Sudan%202010%20MICS_English.pdf

„The Federal Ministry of Health (FMoH) and the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) of the Republic of Sudan would like to acknowledge the support of many individuals, ministries and institutions of the Government of Sudan and regional and international agencies/organisations which contributed to the successful completion of the Sudan Household Health Survey - Second Round, 2010 (SHHS2)“ (Federal Ministry of Health, Dezember 2012, S. 17)

“This report presents the detailed findings of the Sudan Household Health Survey second round (SHHS2), conducted jointly by the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) and the Central Bureau of Statistics with financial and technical assistance from the United Nations agencies and other partners. The SHHS2 is a customized version of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) Round 4 and the Pan Arab Project for Family Health (PAPFAM) survey. The survey is part of the fourth round of the MICS (MICS4), which is a global survey program, originally developed to measure progress towards an internationally agreed set of goals that emerged from the 1990 World Summit for Children.” (Federal Ministry of Health, Dezember 2012, S. 18)

„Table 11.8 presents the prevalence of FGM/C among girls and women. The SHHS2 data shows that 88 percent of women aged 15-49 and 66 percent of ever women aged 0-50+ had some form of genital mutilation/cutting.“ (Federal Ministry of Health, Dezember 2012, S. 198)

·      IRHR - Institute for Reproductive Health and Rights: Sudan; AnaLan: the Sudanese Youth Initiative to stop Khitan of girls (FGM), ohne Datum
http://irhrsudan.org/analanproject/analan-the-sudanese-youth-initiative-to-stop-khitan-of-girls-fgm/

“AnaLan was launched in February 2014, in observance of the International Day of Zero Tolerance to FGM. The idea was generated by a group of young women and men who were deeply concerned and pained by the persistence of Khitan in our country.” (IRHR, ohne Datum)

·      Ministry of Cabinet, Central Bureau Of Statistics: Sudan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2014; Final Report, April 2015
https://mics-surveys-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/MICS5/Middle%20East%20and%20North%20Africa/Sudan/2014/Final/Sudan%202014%20MICS_English.pdf

The Sudan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) was carried out in 2014 by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) Sudan in collaboration with the Ministry of Health as part of the global MICS programme, round 5. Technical support was provided by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) at national, regional and headquarter levels for quality assurance. A large partnership has been established for the conduct of MICS Sudan involving UNICEF, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), World Food Program (WFP), and the Department for International Development (DfID) UK who provided financial support.“ (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 2)

„Table CP.10 presents the prevalence of FGM/C among women age 15-49 years and the type of procedure. The table shows that 86.6 percent of women had some form of female genital mutilation. The percentages rises from 76.8 percent for women without formal education to 91.8 percent for women with higher education. The practice appears more common in rural areas, the highest percentage is 97.7 for North Kordofan state and the lowest 45.4 for Central Darfur. Surprisingly the practice is highly prevalent among women in wealthy households with population in the richest and fourth richest quintiles recording 91.6 percent and 90.0 percent respectively. “ (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214)

„Table CP.12 presents the women’s attitudes towards FGM/C. In respect of whether the practice should be continued or discontinued, 40.9 percent of the women thought it should be continued while 52.8 percent of them believed it should be discontinued. Women in East Darfur state (64.4 percent) are most likely to support the continuation of the practice of FGM/C than women in other states with women in Khartoum state (24.0 percent) supporting continuation of the the practice the least. The level of education of the woman has significant effect on her attitude towards the practice of FGM; 16.9 percent of the women with higher education approved the continuation of the practice of FGM compared to 55.0 percent of the women with no education.“ (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 217 – 218)

„The procedure is generally carried out on girls between the ages of 4 and 14; it is also done to infants, women who are about to be married and, sometimes, to women who are pregnant with their first child or who have just given birth.“ (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214)

„It is important to remember that prevalence data for girls age 0-14 years reflect their current – not final – FGM/C status, since many of them may not have reached the customary age for cutting at the time of the survey .They are reported as being uncut but are still at risk of undergoing the procedure. Overall, 31.5 percent of girls have undergone FGM/C. Daughters whose mothers have no education (33.6 percent) are more likely to be exposed to the practice of FGM/C compared to daughters whose mothers have primary education (32.7 percent), secondary education (28.6 percent) and higher education (15.2 percent). [...] The table shows that the prevalence of the FGM is 69.0 percent for girls 10-14 of age compared with 31.5 percent for 5-9 age group and only 4.3 percent among 0-4 age group. 34.6 percent of daughters of women who had experienced FGM have also under gone cutting compared with only 2.3 percent among the daughters of women who had not experienced FGM. The wealth index have no effect on the practice of FGM. “(Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 215 – 216)

„It is often performed by traditional practitioners, including midwives and barbers, without anaesthesia, using scissors, razor blades, or broken glass. “ (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 214)

·      UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation: Accelerating Change Annual Report 2018, August 2019
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/19-152-UNJP-FGM-AR2018-Aug2019.pdf

„In the Sudan, progress was made in 2018 in securing an endorsement from the Council of Ministers for Article 141, an amendment of the Criminal Act (1991) that bans FGM. Political riots in the Sudan delayed the approval of Article 141. “ (UNFPA-UNICEF, August 2019, S. 17)

„Enforcement of laws at state level, where they have been passed, remained elusive. Advocacy efforts will continue to ensure political commitment at state level to enforce laws through localities and administrative units. “ (UNFPA-UNICEF, August 2019, S. 100)

“The Saleema campaign promotes the concept of the girl who is ‘natural, as God made her’, and (therefore) free from FGM. An article entitled ‘The Saleema Initiative in Sudan to abandon female genital mutilation: outcome evaluation and dose response effects’ will be published in 2019.” (UNFPA-UNICEF, August 2019, S. 102)

·      UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and child marriage in Sudan: Are there any changes taking place?; In depth analysis using multiple indicators cluster surveys (MICS) and Sudan health surveys (SHHS), Juni 2016
https://www.unicef.org/sudan/media/1071/file/Female-Genital-Mutilation-Cutting-Child-Marriage-Sudan-2016.pdf

„FGM/C was generally performed on women aged 15-49 years when they were 5 to 9 years old. Nearly two thirds of them (63.7 percent) were cut at that age (Figure 14). For around 10 percent of them respectively, the event took place when they were aged 0-4 years and 10 years and plus. FGM/C was rarely performed after age 14 - only 0.4 percent of women were cut at age 15 and upward.“ (UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 18)

„FGM/C is mainly performed by trained midwives (for 63.6 percent of circumcised women) followed by traditional circumcisers who performed the FGM/C on 28.7 percent of circumcised women (Figure 9). Other health professionals have performed the procedure for only 3.2 percent of the circumcised women.“ (UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 24)

Figure 12 confirms what was already observed - that the FGM/C practice is more and more medicalized, with trained midwives taking the lead and other health professionals playing a minor role. The percentage of women aged 15-49 years cut by trained midwives increases from 55.4 percent in the period 1966-1979 to 76.0 percent in the years 2000-2014. In the same period, the percentage of women cut by traditional circumcisers decreases from 39.1 percent down to 18.4 percent.“ (UNICEF, Juni 2016, S. 24)

·      USDOS – US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2019 - Sudan, 11. März 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2026413.html

“FGM/C remained a problem throughout the country. No national law prohibits FGM/C, and the procedure continued to be used on women and girls throughout the country. The Bashir government launched a national campaign in 2008 to eradicate FGM/C by 2018; since 2008, five states passed laws prohibiting FGM/C: South Kordofan, Gedaref, Red Sea, South Darfur, and West Darfur. The Bashir government, with the support of the former first lady, prioritized the saleema (uncut) campaign, which raised public awareness. The Bashir government worked with UNICEF, the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), and the World Health Organization to end FGM/C. According to UNICEF and UNFPA, the prevalence rate of FGM/C among girls and women between the ages of 15 and 49 was 87 percent. Prevalence varied geographically and depended on the local ethnic group.” (USDOS, 11. März 2020, Section 6)


[1] Das Sudan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) wurde im Jahr 2014 vom Zentralen Statistikbüro des Sudan (Central Bureau of Statistics, CBS) in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Gesundheitsministerium durchgeführt. (Ministry of Cabinet, April 2015, S. 2)

[2] Das Sudan Household Health Survey - Second Round (SHHS2) wurde im Jahr 2010 vom Zentralen Statistikbüro des Sudan (Central Bureau of Statistics, CBS) und dem Gesundheitsministerium durchgeführt. Das SHHS2 ist eine angepasste Version des MICS. (Federal Ministry of Health, Dezember 2012, S. 17-18)