ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation (Author): “Anfragebeantwortung zu Benin: 1) Informationen zu Voodoo [Vodun, Voudou oder Wodu] (tatsächlicher Tod, Todesangst); 2) Informationen zu Voodo-Königen (Bestimmung durch Fetisch, Ablehnung) [a-8766]”, Document #1346258

Anfragebeantwortung zu Benin: 1) Informationen zu Voodoo [Vodun, Voudou oder Wodu] (tatsächlicher Tod, Todesangst); 2) Informationen zu Voodo-Königen (Bestimmung durch Fetisch, Ablehnung) [a-8766]

18. Juli 2014

Diese Anfragebeantwortung wurde für die Veröffentlichung auf ecoi.net abgeändert.

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1) Informationen zu Voodoo [Vodun, Voudou oder Wodu] (tatsächlicher Tod, Todesangst)

Auf der Website der deutschen Monatszeitschrift Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit, die vom deutschen Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung finanziert wird, ist ein deutschsprachiger Artikel vom April 2013 veröffentlicht, der einen Überblick zu Voodoo in Afrika bietet:

· Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit: Unsichtbare Wirklichkeit, 24. April 2013

http://www.dandc.eu/de/article/von-voodoo-und-witchcraft-religion-und-spiritualitaet-werden-afrika-anders-gelebt-als-europa

Die US-amerikanische Tageszeitung New York Times (NYT) veröffentlicht im Februar 2012 eine Reportage zu Voodoo in Benin:

· NYT - New York Times: On the Vodun Trail in Benin, 3. Februar 2012

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/05/travel/on-the-vodun-trail-in-benin.html?_r=0

Auf der Online-Nachrichtenseite des deutschen Telekommunikationsunternehmen Freenet AG findet sich ein Artikel vom Mai 2006, der sich mit Flüchen im Allgemeinen beschäftigt:

„Jemanden zu verfluchen wirkt wie eine Befreiung. Doch die Person, die den Fluch ausspricht, besitzt keinesfalls übermächtige Kräfte. Die Wirksamkeit eines Fluches hängt in erster Linie wohl von der geistigen Haltung des potenziellen Opfers ab. Während des Ersten Weltkrieges stellten Mediziner bei verwundeten Soldaten fest, dass viele infolge eines Kriegstraumas starben, obwohl sie körperlich gesund waren. Die furchtbaren Fronterlebnisse hatten aus den Infanteristen gebrochene Menschen gemacht. Ärzte, die sich mit Todesfällen infolge von Voodoo-Zauberei befassen, vermuten hier einen ähnlich gearteten psychologischen Vorgang. Der Angst einflößende Fluch bewirkt beim Opfer eine Art Panikreaktion, was zu einer Übersimulation des adrenalen Systems führt. Resigniert das Opfer, kehrt sich die Reaktion um: Es kommt zu einer Verlangsamung von Herzschlag und Atmung, einem drastischen Absinken des Blutdrucks – bis hin zum plötzlichen Eintritt des Todes. Andere Wissenschaftler sehen in der Beeinflussbarkeit einer Person den entscheidenden Faktor. Dieser bewirkt eine positive oder negative Einstellung und senkt beziehungsweise erhöht die Wahrscheinlichkeit, infolge einer Verwünschung zu Tode zu kommen. Der Psychologe Stanford Cohen von der Boston University ging bei seinen Feldforschungen einer Reihe von Todesfällen als Folge von Voodoo-Hexerei nach. Er gelangte zu der Überzeugung, dass Flüche tödliche Folgen haben können, wenn sie das Gefühl völligen Ausgeliefertseins vermitteln. Cohen sieht verblüffende Parallelen zwischen dem zivilisierten Bewohner unseres westlichen Kulturkreises, der sich aus Angst vor einer als unheilbar geltenden Krankheit in sein Schicksal begibt und stirbt, und dem Primitiven, dem der Fluch eines Medizinmanns den Tod bringt. Angstgefühle scheinen also auf manche Menschen eine ungeheuer starke Wirkung zu haben. Das lässt den Schluss zu, dass Todesflüche nur dann in Erfüllung gehen können, wenn das Opfer davon Kenntnis hat und daran glaubt, dass der Tod unausweichlich ist. Professor Gottlieb Freisinger von der John Hopkins University (Baltimore, Maryland) geht davon aus, dass in einem Gemeinwesen erst bestimmte Werte und Glaubensvorstellungen vorhanden sein müssen, bevor eine Verwünschung seine tödliche Wirkung entfalten kann. Und der Ethnobiologe Wade Davis betont, dass beim Voodoo-Kult soziale und kulturelle Erwartungen die Kraft einer Todesverwünschung verstärken. Nach dieser Denkweise wären westliche Skeptiker also gegen Todesverwünschungen gefeit. Doch es gibt Forscher, die dieser Ansicht widersprechen. Sie gehen davon aus, dass sich ein Gedanke auf einem Gegenstand oder einer Person ‚einprägt‘ und auch auf andere übertragen werden kann – unabhängig vom kulturellen Hintergrund und der Glaubensrichtung.“ (Freenet, 17. Mai 2006)

Ein im American Journal of Public Health vom Oktober 2002 veröffentlichter Artikel der Ärztin Dr. Esther M. Sternberg enthält Informationen zum Thema Voodoo-Tod:

„The remarkable accuracy of Walter B. Cannon’s 1942 article ‘‘Voodoo’ Death’ excerpted in this issue of the Journal, proposing a scientific basis for ‘voodoo’ death is at once surprising and not surprising. Voodoo death, as defined by Cannon, is sudden, unexplained death resulthing [sic] from a voodoo curse. At first glance, it is surprising that scientific discoveries over the last 60 years have largely filled out the details of—but not overturned—most of Cannon’s proposed explanation of the physiological underpinnings of this phenomenon. […]

The dramatic suddenness of the illness following the threat, coupled with a lack of any apparent injury, exposure to toxins, or infection suggested to Cannon that merely the fear of death could, through physiological response mechanisms initiated by fear, precipitate death itself. […]

Strikingly absent, however, from Cannon’s explanation is the hormonal stress response—the cascade of hormones released from the brain, pituitary gland, and adrenal gland within minutes of exposure to any sort of stressor. This is because in 1942, when the article was written, many of these hormones were yet to be discovered. Furthermore, the term ‘stress,’ popularized by Cannon’s admirer Hans Selye and others in the postwar period, was not yet in general use. The structure of cortisol, the hormone released from the cortex of the adrenal glands during stress, was identified in 1936 by Edward Kendall and Tadeus Reichstein, who received the Nobel Prize for their discoveries in 1950 together with Philip Hench. However, the full cascade of hormones involved in the hormonal stress response was not fully elucidated until the identity of the brain’s hypothalamic stress hormone, corticotropin releasing hormone or CRH, was discovered by Wylie Vale in 1981. Thus, Cannon could not have included in his scenario of the possible causes of voodoo death the role of hypothalamic CRH released after signals from the amygdala, the brain’s fear center, reached the hypothalamus. Nor could he include how the cross-talk between the brain stem adrenaline centers involved in initiation of the sympathetic response could coordinate with hormones released from the brain’s hypothalamic stress center to cause a massive release of both adrenaline-like nerve chemicals and stress hormones. Together these might well cause illness, including loss of appetite, weakness, cardiac arrhythmias, and even vascular collapse that could result in death.“ (Sternberg, Oktober 2002)

Eine Seminararbeit, die im Rahmen der Lehrveranstaltung Symbolisches Heilen an der Medizinischen Universität Wien im Wintersemester 2008 von Walter Feichtinger verfasst wurde, enthält ebenso detaillierte Informationen zu wissenschaftlichen Forschungen zum Thema Voodoo-Tod:

· Feichtinger, Walter: Voodoo Tod, SE Symbolisches Heilen WS2008, ohne Datum (verfügbar auf Website der Medizinischen Universität Wien)

http://www.meduniwien.ac.at/med_audiovisuals/Seminare/Powerpoint/SymbolischesHeilen-I/VooDoo%20Death.pdf

2) Informationen zu Voodo-Königen (Bestimmung durch Fetisch, Ablehnung)

Die folgenden Ausschnitte aus ausgewählten Quellen enthalten Informationen zu oben genannter Fragestellung (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 18. Juli 2014):

· IRB - Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada: Benin: The practice of Voodoo, especially the selection and role of priestesses; treatment of women who refuse to agree to become priestesses; state protection (2012-October 2013) [BEN104597.FE], 16. Oktober 2013 (verfügbar auf ecoi.net)

http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/268521/396482_de.html

„In general, the consultant in cultural and tourism development explained that people who have come to take part in the Voodoo initiation ritual (future initiates) do so for various reasons (Consultant 27 Sept. 2013). He stated that it [translation] ‘is often a family tradition, sometimes a personal desire’ (ibid.). According to him, [translation] ‘sometimes a Vodun [god] chooses an individual by communicating with them through a wish at birth, through dreams or even through illnesses’ (ibid.). Age or sex has no influence on the decision to be initiated (ibid.). The consultant stated that the choice of priests and priestesses is made based on the same reasons as for future initiates (ibid.). The professor of African and African American studies at Harvard University stated that priestesses may be chosen from within the families of practitioners (Professor 19 Sept. 2013). The visiting associate professor explained that many years of training are necessary for an initiate to become a priestess and that candidates must show that they have the qualities required to be chosen (30 Sept. 2013). He added that the priestess selection process is sometimes done through divination, sometimes through the parents and sometimes through the person themselves (30 Sept. 2013). In 30 September 2013 correspondence sent to the Research Directorate, a visiting associate professor in Anthropology at North Dakota State University who just completed his doctorate thesis on Voodoo, stated that there is no specific age for becoming a priestess. He added that the girls who have been initiated (at between 8 and 12 years of age) are brought to become priestesses later (for some of them, in their early twenties, while in some groups, only post-menopausal women may become priestesses) (Visiting Associate Professor 30 Sept. 2013). The consultant stated that the leader of the religion is selected from the ranks [translation] ‘by a designation that is purely by lineage and confirmed by consultation of Fa [a process of divination] (Professor 30 Sept. 2013)]’ (27 Sept. 2013).” (IRB, 16. Oktober 2013)

„Several sources point out that a woman may refuse to become a priestess (Visiting Associate Professor 30 Sept. 2013; Director 20 Sept. 2013). However, during a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, the Director of the Laboratory of Anthropology of Contemporary Worlds (Laboratoire d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains) at the Université libre de Bruxelles stated that it may be [translation] ‘difficult’ to do that and that this decision may create ‘disagreements’ within the family (ibid.). Similarly, the Professor of African and African American studies stated that, in some situations, a young woman may be pressured by her family to become a priestess (Professor 30 Sept. 2013). She explained that ‘honouring the Vodun is also part of retaining connections with the ancestors,’ given that, according to beliefs, upon their death, these individuals can ‘impact family life for positive and potentially negative ends’ (ibid.). Thus, members of the extended family can exert ‘considerable pressure’ to push a member to fill this role (ibid.). The Professor stated that the consequences of refusing the title of priestess can even go as far as ‘ostracism’ (19 Sept. 2013). However, in 25 September 2013 correspondence to the Research Directorate, an associate professor in anthropology at Agnes Scott College in Georgia, whose research concerns Benin, Voodoo and Christianity in Africa, explained that ‘some families forbid their children from being initiated, while others believe strongly in their duty to the Vodun spirits, and so will comply with a Vodun leader's demands.’” (IRB, 16. Oktober 2013)

· IRB - Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada: Benin: Conflicts between Vodun practioners and Christians; information on the group known as "Sakpata," as well as their initiation practices, including state protection for those who refuse to participate (2012-October 2013) [BEN104596.E], 11. Oktober 2013 (verfügbar auf ecoi.net)

http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/268520/396480_de.html

„Several sources offered caution regarding generalization about Vodun practices, as these practices vary throughout the country, by region and by ethnic groups (Associate Professor 25 Sept. 2013; Anthropologist 19 Sept. 2013; Professor of African and African-American Studies 19 Sept. 2013). Sources indicated that practices could also vary within the same locality (Anthropologist 19 Sept. 2013; Professor of African and African-American Studies 19 Sept. 2013). In a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, a visiting assistant professor at North Dakota State University, who has done field research on Vodun in Benin, went further, stating that while there might be some common elements depending on the region, ‘Vodun practices can vary from locality to locality, family to family, house to house, and even person to person’ (Visiting Assistant Professor 30 Sept. 2013). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an associate professor of anthropology at Agnes Scott College, whose research focus includes Benin and Vodun as well as Christianity in Africa, explained that [w]hile there are indeed initiation procedures that will be similar across different parts of Benin, and there are associations of Vodun priests that share information and ritual procedures, Vodun is not an orthodox religion with texts or documentation or liturgy. Therefore, there is bound to be plenty of variation between regions, ethnic groups, and individual priests. (Associate Professor 25 Sept. 2013)“ (IRB, 11. Oktober 2013)

· Roose, Iris: Vodun in Benin, ohne Datum (verfügbar auf fredericvanwalleghem.com)

http://www.fredericvanwalleghem.com/voduninbenin.pdf

„Vodun is a hierarchical organized religion with the Dagbo Hounon and his female counterpart Nagbo Hounon on top. This high priest and priestess are not related to each other. They are recognized as the social rulers of the Vodun Kingdom, both within Benin as Haiti, Brazil, France and other locations where Vodun is practiced. This title is passed down from one chef suprême to the other. Beneath the Dagbo and Nagbo Hounon there are many priests and priestesses serving individual cults. They are each responsible for the ceremonies specific to their cult deity. Another prominent role within Vodun society is given to the Bokonon, the Vodun diviners. Additionally, there are the family heads which are responsible for the quotidian actions of the specific cults. At least there are the many Vodun devotees, whether or not initiated in to a particular cult.“ (Roose, ohne datum)

· Zinzindohoue, Barthélemy: Traditional Religion In Africa: The Vodun Phenomenon In Benin, ohne Datum

http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/zinzindohoue.htm

„Hênnu designates the family, reduced or extended, the first unit of social organisation. It is a blood-line community, united by a single ancestor, with food or moral prohibitions, family Vodun cults and divinities to which the family is loyal. Tò is a grouping of several families or several xwè (parental enclosures). As in the family, it too has a hierarchy of prohibitions (Tosu), prescribed sacred practices (sin), protector Vodun(s) (Tovodun) and priests dedicated to the cult. Here, more than at the family level, the reciprocal influence of political and religious authority is apparent. More often than not, it is Vodun that prevails in the consecration of customary chiefs. And generally the Vodun oracles are also irrevocable: hence the fear they inspire and which provides for an easier take-over control of social phenomena. In this way, in traditional society, a social category without its Vodun(s) is fragile and bound to disappear. It should be noted here that quite apart from the ethnic or inter-ethnic Vodun(s), most Vodun(s) are all the more efficient when they are of foreign origin, in other words, imported.” (Zinzindohoue, ohne Datum)

· United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services: Benin: Information on Voodoo practices, 28. Jänner 1999

http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6a354.html

„Adherents to Voodoo are called upon to follow a strict set of rules. A person who breaks the rules of Voodoo annoys the spirits and the person who ‘breaks their laws might become very ill or even end up dead.’ Judy Rosenthal, professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan-Flint and author of Possession, Ecstasy and Law in Ewe Voodoo, states that while Voodoo practices are normally voluntary, she is familiar with at least one case where children were given to the Voodoo priests in the Tro Kossi sect. She is also familiar with stories of charlatan priests who try to force adults and children to do what the lineage leaders want (Rosenthal 29 Sept. 1998; Rosenthal 1998, 201). One article noted the status of local traditional rulers. The most powerful person in a district is the minister of the local king and is referred to as the ‘chief de terre.’ This article indicates that the chief de terre knows the secrets of the fetishes which ‘gives him power that state administrators might find hard to compete with’ (Deutsche Presse-Agentur 6 Dec. 1996).” (United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services, 28. Jänner 1999)

[Teilfrage entfernt]

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 18. Juli 2014)