29 September 2011

 

HUN103810.E

 

Hungary: The Hungarian Guard (Magyar Gárda), including its growth, and impact on the government; reports of Hungarian Guard actions against Roma individuals and Roma actions against members of the Hungarian Guard, including the state response to such actions

 

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Ottawa

 

About the Hungarian Guard

 

Several sources report that the Hungarian Guard (Magyar Gárda) is a paramilitary wing of the political party Movement for a Better Hungary (Jobbik Magyarországért Mozgalom) (PHW 2011; Freedom House 27 June 2011, 243; EUobserver.com 5 Apr. 2011; OSCE 15 June 2010, 32; Spiegel 31 Dec. 2010). The so-called paramilitary group has an estimated several thousand members (AP 3 Apr. 2011; EUobserver.com 19 Apr. 2010). Sources describe the Movement for a Better Hungary, popularly known as Jobbik, as an extreme right-wing party (AI 2011; Freedom House 27 June 2011, 236; PHW 2011) with nationalistic roots (ibid.; Freedom House 27 June 2011, 236).

 

The Hungarian Guard was co-founded in 2007 by Jobbik's leader Gábor Vona (PHW 2011; Time 29 July 2011; Spiegel 31 Dec. 2010; MTI-EcoNews 24 Aug. 2009). According to The Budapest Times, Jobbik registered the black-uniformed Hungarian Guard as a cultural organization in June 2007 (4 July 2009). Other reports indicate that it was established in August 2007 (PHW 2011; OSCE 15 June 2010, 32). The Political Handbook of the World 2011states that the Hungarian Guard's charter includes the preservation of Hungarian culture, the maintenance of public order through training and the defence of the nation in "extraordinary situations" (2011). The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) similarly indicates that the Hungarian Guard was registered as a cultural organization "aimed at 'preparing youth spiritually and physically for extraordinary situations that might require the mobilization of the people'" (15 June 2010, 32).

 

Reaction to the Hungarian Guard

 

The Political Handbook of the World notes that several political parties have condemned the Hungarian Guard, "labelling it as 'fascist'" (PHW 2011). The National Roma Council "demanded it be banned along with other paramilitary groups after the Guard marched several times outside Roma villages to protest 'Gypsy criminality'" (ibid.). The World Jewish Council also "called for the group to be banned because the Guard's coat of arms is associated with Hungary's World War II-era fascist Arrow Cross party" (ibid.).

 

Various sources report that the Hungarian Guard was banned in 2009 by the Hungarian courts (PHW 2011; AP 20 Apr. 2010; EUobserver.com 5 Apr. 2011) for "rejecting equal rights to Romas and inciting resentment against them" (PHW 2011). However, the group reorganized itself into new organizations with similar-sounding names and many of the same members (EUobserver.com 5 Apr. 2011; AP 3 Apr. 2011). The groups that have been linked to the disbanded Hungarian Guard and Jobbik include the following:

 

The Hungarian National Guard (EUobserver.com 5 Apr. 2011; AFP 4 July 2010);

Civil Guard Association for a Better Future (also translated as the Society of Civil Guards for a Brighter Future) (AI 18 Mar. 2011; Hungary 24 May 2011);

The New Hungarian Guard (AI 18 Mar. 2011; AP 3 Apr. 2011; MTI-EcoNews 29 Apr. 2010);

The Guard Motorcyclists and the National Garrison (AP 3 Apr. 2011);

The Brighter Future militia (AFP 14 Apr. 2011);

Vagabonds for the Protection of Hungarians (AI 18 Mar. 2011); and

Defence Force (Vedero) (AP 22 Apr. 2011; Irish Times 29 Apr. 2011).

 

Reports of Hungarian Guard Actions Against Roma Individuals

 

According to multiple sources, the Hungarian Guard and other far-right organizations held demonstrations across the country (MTI-EcoNews 29 Apr. 2010; Hungary 24 May 2011; OSCE 15 June 2011, 33; ERRC 11 July 2011, 4, 7, 12, 17) with the goal of inciting "prejudice against the Roma" (Hungary 24 May 2011). The groups organized the demonstrations under the guise of protecting Hungary against what they termed the "'Gypsy Terror'" (AP 3 Apr. 2011) or "'Gypsy criminality'" (OSCE 15 June 2010, 33; Spiegel 31 Dec. 2010). There were also reports of anti-Roma marches by members of the Jobbik party (AI 18 Mar. 2011), as well as the Hungarian Guard (AFP 4 July 2010), that were held in rural towns to "intimidate Romas" (AP 3 Apr. 2011).

 

The demonstrations, which reportedly began in 2007 in "Roma areas of towns and in Roma villages" (Spiegel 31 Dec. 2010), took place in the following locations:

Year Place

2007 Tatárszentgyörgy (OSCE 15 June 2010, 33; Spiegel 31 Dec. 2010)

2008 Fadd and Kiskunlacháza (OSCE 15 June 2010, 33; ERRC 11 July 2011, 7, 12)

Tiszalök (OSCE 15 June 2010, 33)

Pátka (ERRC 11 July 2011, 17)

2009 Sarkad (OSCE 15 June 2010, 33)

Debrecen (MTI-EcoNews 29 Apr. 2010)

Sajóbábony (ERRC 11 July 2011, 4)

2010 Budapest (AFP 4 July 2010)

2011 Gyöngyöspata (AI 18 Mar. 2011; Hungary 24 May 2011)

Hejoszalonta (AP 3 Apr. 2011)

 

In addition, media sources note that far-right vigilante groups have been patrolling other villages in eastern Hungary (AP 22 Apr. 2011; AFP 14 Apr. 2011) for the purpose of defending the Hungarian nation from "'Gypsy crime'" (ibid.; AP 22 Apr. 2011; Irish Times 29 Apr. 2011). The groups include the Brighter Future association, described as "a sister group of the far-right Jobbik" (AFP 14 Apr. 2011), the Defence Force and other paramilitary groups like them (Irish Times 29 Apr. 2011).

 

In Gyöngyöspata, already mentioned as the location of Hungarian Guard demonstrations, several far-right vigilante groups showed up (AP 22 Apr. 2011) claiming that "local police are unable to protect white Hungarians from "'Gypsy crime'" (Irish Times 29 Apr. 2011). The groups include the Defence Force (ibid.), the New Hungarian Guard, the Vagabonds for the Protection of Hungarians (AI 18 Mar. 2011), and the Civil Guard Association for a Better Future (ibid.; Human Rights Watch 18 Mar. 2011; Hungary 24 May 2011). According to the Parliamentary Commissioner for National and Ethnic Minority Rights (also known as the Minorities Ombudsman), these "'civil guardian'" patrols have been frightening the "minority community of Roma" (ibid.).

 

Violence against Roma

 

According to Spiegel, the English-language version of the German news magazine Der Spiegel, there was a "wave of hate crimes against the Roma in Hungary in 2008 and 2009" (31 Dec. 2010). The OSCE also reports that between 2008 and 2009, a number of violent incidents took place in Hungary that led to loss of life, serious injuries and destruction of property among the Roma community (15 June 2010, 3, 56-64). Several sources corroborate the observation that there were a number of violent attacks against the Roma in 2008 (ERRC Mar. 2011, 22-24; AI 10 Nov. 2010) and in 2009 (AI 10 Nov. 2010; AP 25 Mar. 2011; ERRC Mar. 2011, 21, 24; ibid. 11 July 2011, 4-11). Some of the incidents reportedly involved the use of Molotov cocktails (ERRC 11 July 2011, 7, 9, 11, 13-17; OSCE 15 June 2010, 57-61; AI Nov. 2010; EUobserver.com 19 Apr. 2010). The locations of the Molotov attacks include Fadd, Pátka, Piricse, Tarnabod, Köszárhegy, Debrecen, Pusztadobos, Tatárszentgyörgy, Bocfölde (ERRC 11 July 2011, 7, 9, 11, 13-17; OSCE 15 June 2010, 57-61); Dunaföldvár and Boldogkövÿralja (ibid., 63); and Kecskemét, Gic, and Piricse (ERRC 11 July 2011, 9). Amnesty International (AI) reports that, as a result of the attacks against the Roma between 2008 and 2009, six people died and several were injured (10 Nov. 2010).

 

However, Spiegel points out that "neither the Hungarian Guard nor Jobbik have been implicated in any way in the murderous attacks of 2008 and 2009" (Spiegel 31 Dec. 2010). Still, the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC) claims that the presence of the Hungarian Guard and Jobbik "has had a definite influence in the country," arguing that "they contribute to a climate in which people feel more empowered to act out on negative feelings that they might hold, frustrations that they might have" (ibid.).

 

Sources report that incidences of violence against the Roma continued in 2010 (ERRC 11 July 2011, 2-3; US 8 Apr. 2011, 33-34) and 2011 (ERRC 11 July 2011, 2). For example, sources report the use of Molotov cocktails in Siofok in 2010 (US 8 Apr. 2011, 33; ERRC 11 July 2011, 3). The ERRC, which has documented the series of attacks against the Roma or their property, says that between January 2008 and July 2011, nine people have died and dozens were seriously injured (ERRC Mar. 2011, 5; ibid. 11 July 2011, 1).

 

Village of Gyöngyöspata

 

Various sources report on the tension between Roma and non-Roma residents in the village of Gyöngyöspata in 2011 (ERRC 11 July 2011, 2; Hungary 24 May 2011; Human Rights First 18 Mar. 2011; MTI-EcoNews 17 July 2011). Hungary's Minorities Ombudsman says that, because of its small and ineffective police force, "political forces" selected the village as an ideal location for "increas[ing] dissatisfaction over the police's efficiency" and "provok[ing] conflict between Roma and non-Roma inhabitants" (Hungary 24 May 2011). The Civil Guard Association for a Better Future (Szebb Jövoért Polgáror Egyesület) was then invited to patrol the village, ostensibly to "execute a mission of 'law and order'" (ibid.). In March 2011, the Civil Guard began to patrol the streets and according to various sources, to intimidate Romani residents (ibid.; Human Rights First 18 Mar. 2011; MTI-EcoNews 17 July 2011). More than 2,000 Jobbik party members and sympathizers also marched through the village on 6 March 2011(AI 18 Mar. 2011). Later, around 200 vigilantes from the New Hungarian Guard, Civil Guard Association for a Better Future and Vagabonds for Protection of Hungarians marched on the streets (ibid.). According to an AI action appeal, the police did nothing to prevent the harassment of Roma people by these groups, although four people were arrested on 16 March 2011 and police checkpoints were eventually established (AI 18 Mar. 2011). Further information on the arrested individuals could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

 

In April 2011, another far-right paramilitary group, Defence Force, organized a military training camp near Gyöngyöspata's Roma neighbourhood (BBC 22 Apr. 2011; The Budapest Times 22 July 2011; MTI-EcoNews 19 July 2011; AP 22 Apr. 2011). According to media reports, on 22 April 2011, the Hungarian Red Cross evacuated approximately 270 Roma women and children from the village (BBC 22 Apr. 2011; The Budapest Times 22 July 2011). However, media sources indicate that the government denied any connection between the two events and stated that the Red Cross was taking Roma families on a pre-planned holiday (BBC 22 Apr. 2011, AP 22 Apr. 2011). The Hungarian English-language business news service, MTI-EcoNews (n.d.), notes that the police "dissolved the [training] camp following a government decree that imposes stricter punishments to uniformed people that organise unauthorised patrols" (19 July 2011). According to the Budapest Times and the Associated Press (AP), the Defence Force commander, Tamas Eszes, was detained along with some of his associates (The Budapest Times 22 July 2011; AP 22 Apr. 2011), but "[a]ll were subsequently released after a court found no grounds to detain them" (The Budapest Times 22 July 2011).

 

The Minorities Ombudsman states that his investigation into the incidents in Gyöngyöspata "revealed several legislative and law enforcement deficiencies" (Hungary 24 May 2011). He also requested the "Prosecutor of Békés County to examine the legal activity and conditions of the 'Society of Civil Guards for a Brighter Future' and initiated the suspension of its activities by court" (ibid.). Further information regarding the suspension could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

 

Sources indicate that in July 2011 a candidate of the Jobbik party was elected as mayor of Gyöngyöspata (The Budapest Times 22 July 2011; MTI-EcoNews 19 July 2011; Le Monde 31 July 2011). According to The Budapest Times, the newly elected mayor announced that "he intends to set up a local gendarmerie to keep order in the town that has been plagued by politically fuelled ethnic tension in recent months" (22 July 2011).

 

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) also reports that in the town of Tiszavasvari, "the 'capital' of the radical right-wing Jobbik party," the mayor, a Jobbik party member, set up a gendarmerie to patrol the streets and to "detain any suspected wrong-doer until the police arrive" (BBC 8 June 2011). A police representative denied any cooperation between the police and the gendarmerie (ibid.).

 

State Protection

 

Legislation

 

AI reports that Article 269 of the Criminal Code "criminalizes incitement to hatred against any national, ethnic, racial group or other groups of population, which is punishable with imprisonment up to three years" (AI Nov. 2010, 19). Under Article 269/B, the use of "'symbols of despotism'," including "a swastika, an arrow-cross, hammer and sickle," are punishable with a fine (ibid.). Article 174/B criminalizes assaults committed because of a victim's nationality, race, ethnicity or religion and is punishable by imprisonment for up to five years (ibid.). If the crime is committed by "a) force of arms; b) with a deadly weapon; c) causing a substantial injury; d) with cruelty toward the injured party; e) in groups; f) in a criminal conspiracy," it is punishable under Article 174/B (2) by between two and eight years imprisonment (ibid.).

 

According to the website of the Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the European Union, the Hungarian government proposed change to the Penal Code in 2011, in part to deal with the spate of street marches by groups of people dressed in "non-official uniforms" (EU 30 Apr. 2011). The Budapest-based Háttér Support Society for Lesbain, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) People (Háttér Társaság a Melegekért) (Háttér n.d) reports that, in May 2011, the Hungarian Parliament adopted an amendment to the Criminal Code to protect the Roma community from "extreme right-wing groups" (ibid. 2 May 2011). The amendment, which was a response to events involving right-wing groups dressed in uniforms, reportedly extends hate crimes legislation to include intimidation of ethnic, racial and religious or other groups (ibid.). Further information on the amendment could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

 

A 2011 Hungarian government report to the United Nations states that, in order to "prosecute the illegal activity of people not willing to acknowledge" the Hungarian Guard's court-ordered dissolution, there is

 

legislation ordered to prosecute participation in the activities of the dissolved social organization as an infringement of the law. The law prosecutes even wearing clothes that resemble to the uniform, usual attire of the dissolved social organisation and makes it possible to impose even custodial sentences. (Hungary 16 Feb. 2011, para. 83)

 

Police

 

According to the Political Handbook of the World 2011, in 2009, police doubled the size of a task force investigating anti-Roma attacks (PHW 2011). However, AI reports that there is no specific training for the police on hate crimes (AI May 2011; ibid. 2011). The ERRC also notes that Hungary has no "guidelines developed for police and prosecutors on how to investigate and prosecute hate crimes" (ERRC Mar. 2011, 19).

 

Police response to the Hungarian Guard

 

2009

 

In July 2009, police banned a demonstration that was to be held on Szabadsag Square in Budapest (The Budapest Times 4 July 2009). The police indicated that they would "take firm action against any private individual or member of any organisation, with special regard to the Hungarian Guard," who want to demonstrate (ibid.).

 

In August 2009, police initiated legal proceedings against 16 members of the Hungarian Guard for "violating the ban on participation in any event of a legally disbanded civil organisation" (MTI-EcoNews 24 Aug. 2009). The Hungarian Guard members stood in front of the Budapest police headquarters while the Guard's founder, Gábor Vona, was in a hearing inside the building (ibid.). Police had accused Vona of being the chief organizer of a ceremony to induct new members into the group that was held the week before (ibid.).

 

2010

 

MTI-EcoNews reports that on 20 April 2010, charges were filed with the public prosecutor against the chief of the Hungarian Guard and two of his associates on "suspicion of illegally maintaining the uniformed organization" (MTI-EcoNews 20 Apr. 2010). The AP similarly reported that on the same day, police filed charges against three leaders of the Hungarian Guard (20 Apr. 2010). Because the group was still operating in spite of its ban, the charges also included "incitement against authorities' decrees" (AP 20 Apr. 2010). Nine days later, MTI-EcoNews reported that police filed charges against 10 leaders of the banned Hungarian Guard for violating the laws of assembly (MTI-EcoNews 29 Apr. 2010). The Deputy Prosecutor-General said that the charges were raised because of an October 2009 demonstration Guard members had attended in Debrecen in eastern Hungary (ibid.). Further information on these cases could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

 

In July 2010, police arrested more than 70 members of the Hungarian National Guard at demonstrations in Budapest that were attended by around 600 members of the organization to commemorate the banning of the Hungarian Guard (MTI-EcoNews 4 July 2010). Police also arrested another 20 Hungarian National Guard members attending the same rallies because they were in possession of minor firearms (ibid.; AFP 4 July 2010).

 

2011

 

During an April 2011 anti-Roma rally, at which 600 Jobbik supporters demonstrated against "'Gypsy terror'" in Hejoszalonta, police in riot gear installed metal barriers to "keep the Jobbik supporters away from a counter-rally by human rights groups" (AP 3 Apr. 2011).

 

Roma Reaction to the Hungarian Guard

 

Several sources describe actions taken by the Roma community between 2008 and 2011 to protest or protect itself from Hungarian Guard activities (OSCE 15 June 2010, 37-38; AP 3 Apr. 2011; PHW 2011) or to promote tolerance (The Jerusalem Post 2 Aug. 2011):

 

According to the OSCE report, between 2008 and 2009, the Roma engaged in the following activities (15 June 2010, 37-38):

 

About 1,000 Roma protested a recruitment event held by the Hungarian Guard on 20 July 2008;

On 23 October 2008, the Roma organized a protest against a Hungarian Guard event in Tiszalök;

On 14 May 2009, 200 Roma demonstrated against a march of the Hungarian Guard in Hajdúhadház;

In 2009, Roma communities organized self-defence guards and patrols in Iván, Györ-Moson-Sopron, Zala and Vas counties; and

Also in 2009, Roma started a neighbourhood watch in several settlements, including in Nyírvasvári, Nyírbéltek, Nyírbogát, Encs, Máriapócs, Piricse, Ónod, Tiszaújváros, Girincs, Körö, Alsózcolca, Taktaharkány, and Taktaszada (OSCE 15 June 2010, 37-38).

 

Sources also report the following additional responses by the Roma to the Hungarian Guard (AP 3 Apr. 2011; The Jerusalem Post 2 Aug. 2011; PHW 2011):

 

A Roma group announced its plans to establish its own "'Gypsy Guard'" in 2009 (PHW 2011). However, the "plan was widely denounced as incendiary by Roma and other party politicians" (ibid.).

At the beginning of April 2011, 150 people, including Roma educator and activist Agnes Daroczi, protested a Jobbik rally in the village of Hejoszalonta (AP 3 Apr. 2011).

A group of Jewish and Roma youth met in the village of Bank on 2 August 2011 to discuss plans for better cooperation between Roma and Jewish communities in Europe (The Jerusalem Post 2 Aug. 2011). They participated in the Volunticipate program, which aims to address the "high level of intolerance" in Hungary and the "lack of debate" about it (ibid.).

 

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

 

References

 

Agence France-Presse (AFP). 14 April 2011. "Hungarian Police Halts Far-Right Militia's Patrols." (Factiva)

 

_____. 4 July 2010. "Hungary Police Arrest 20 Members of Far-Right Group." (Factiva)

 

Amnesty International (AI). May 2011. "Hungary: Violent Attacks Against Roma: Amnesty International Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review, May 2011." (EUR 27/003/2010) [Accessed 16 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. 18 March 2011. "Urgent Action: Vigilantes Threaten Roma Community." (EUR 27/005/2011) [Accessed 8 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. 2011. "Hungary." Amnesty International Report 2011. The State of the World's Human Rights. [Accessed 29 July 2011]

 

_____. November 2010. "Violent Attacks Against Roma in Hungary: Time to Investigate Racial Motivation." (EUR 27/001/2010) [Accessed 11 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. 10 November 2010. "Hungarian Authorities Failing to Investigate and Punish Attacks on Roma, Says New Amnesty Report." [Accessed 11 Aug. 2011]

 

Associated Press (AP). 22 April 2011. Bela Szandelszky and Pablo Gorondi. "Roma Families Evacuated Village in Hungary to Escape Far-Right Vigilante Camp, Members Detained." (Factiva)

 

_____. 3 April 2011. Pablo Gorondi. "Hungary's Far-Right Jobbik Party Returns to Anti-Roma Campaign in Effort to Regain Popularity." (Factiva)

 

_____. 25 March 2011. Pablo Gorondi. "Trial Begins in Hungary of 4 Men Accused of Deadly Attacks Against Country's Roma Minority." (Factiva)

 

_____. 20 April 2010. "Police Want Indictment of Hungarian Guard Members." (Factiva)

 

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 8 June 2011. Nick Thorpe. "Hungary's Roma Encounter 'Gypsy Crime' Gendarmes." [Accessed 5 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. 22 April 2011. Nick Thorpe. "Hungary Denies Roma Families Evacuated over Attack Fear." [Accessed 29 July 2011]

 

The Budapest Times. 22 July 2011. Robert Hodgson. "Far-Right Takes Gyöngyöspata." [Accessed 8 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. 4 July 2009. "Higher Court Confirms Hungarian Guard Ban." [Accessed 2 Aug. 2011]

 

European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC). 11 July 2011. Attacks Against Roma in Hungary: January 2008-July 2011. [Accessed 3 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. March 2011. Imperfect Justice: Anti-Roma Violence and Impunity. [Accessed 3 Aug. 2011]

 

EUobserver.com. 5 April 2011. Leigh Phillips. "The State of Democracy in Hungary: 'The Illness Has Advanced to a New Stage'." [Accessed 2 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. 19 April 2010. Leigh Phillips. "A Far-Right for the Facebook Generation: The Rise and Rise of Jobbik." [Accessed 2 Aug. 2011]

 

European Union (EU). 30 April 2011. Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the EU. "Hungary Is Committed to Roma Integration." [Accessed 5 Aug. 2011]

 

Freedom House. 27 June 2011. "Hungary." By Balázs Áron Kovács and Flóra Hevesi in Nations in Transit 2011. [Accessed 2 Aug. 2011]

 

Háttér Társaság a Melegekért. 2 May 2011. Tamás Dombos. "Hungary Adopts Stricter Hate Crimes Legislation." (ILGA Europe) [Accessed 22 Aug. 2011]

 

_____. N.d. "Programjaink." [Accessed 22 Sept. 2011]

 

Human Rights First. 18 March 2011. "Hungarian Government Urged to Protect Roma from Harassment and Intimidation." [Accessed 2 Aug. 2011]

 

Hungary. 16 February 2011. National Report Submitted in Accordance with Paragraph 15 (a) of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Hungary. (A/HRC/WG.6/11/HUN/1) [Accessed 1 Sept. 2011]

 

_____. 24 May 2011. Parliamentary Commissioner for National and Ethnic Minority Rights. "The Report of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the National and Ethnic Minority Rights on the Incidents Happened in Gyögyöspata in March, 2011 (Summary)." [Accessed 3 Aug. 2011]

 

Irish Times. 29 April 2011. "Far-Right Parties Gain Amid Resentment over Economic Battering of Hungary." (Factiva)

 

The Jerusalem Post. 2 August 2011. Jeremy Sharon. "Jews and Roma Talk Alliance in Hungary. Radical Voices, Anti-Semitic Narratives Are Getting Stronger, Says NGO head." (Factiva)

 

Le Monde. 31 July 2011. "A Gyöngyöspata, Vitrine de l'Extrême Droite." (Factiva)

 

MTI-EcoNews. 19 July 2011. "MP Making Coercive Remarks Should Resign, Says Jobbik." (Factiva)

 

_____. 17 July 2011. "Hungarian Village Troubled by Ethnic Tension Elects Jobbik Mayor" (Factiva)

 

_____. 4 July 2010. "Police Detain Hungarian National Guard Activists at Rallies." (Factiva)

 

_____. 29 April 2010. "Police File Charges Against Chapter of Outlawed Hungarian Guard." (Factiva)

 

_____. 20 April 2010. "Police File Charges Against Outlawed Hungarian Guard." (Factiva)

 

_____. 24 August 2009. "Police Initiate Proceedings Against Hungarian Guard Members." (Factiva)

 

_____. N.d. "MTI-Econews: Instant Economic News and Information." [Accessed 22 Sept. 2011]

 

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). 15 June 2010. Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). Addressing Violence, Promoting Integration: Field Assessment of Violent Incidents against Roma in Hungary. Key Developments, Findings and Recommendations June-July 2009. [Accessed 3 Aug. 2011]

 

Political Handbook of the World 2011 (PHW). 2011. "Hungary." Edited by Thomas C. Muller, William R. Overstreet, Judith F. Isacoff, and Tom Lansford. Washington, DC: CQ Press. [Accessed 11 Aug. 2011]

 

Spiegel Online International. 31 December 2010. Siobhán Dowling. "The Right Wing and the Roma - EU Presidency a Test for Tolerance in Hungary." (Factiva)

 

Time. 29 July 2011. Sonia Van Gilder Cooke. "Hungary: On the Ballot." [Accessed 4 Aug. 2011]

 

United States (US). 8 April 2011. Department of State. "Hungary." Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2010. [Accessed 2 Aug. 2011]

 

Additional Sources Consulted

 

Oral sources: Attempts to contact the Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for National and Ethnic Minority Rights were unsuccessful.

 

Internet sites, including: Internet sites, including: Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005-2015, Human Rights Commission, Human Rights Watch, Hungarian Helsinki Committee, International Crisis Group, Jobbik, Legal Defence Bureau for National and Ethnic Minorities, Magyar Gárda, Open Society Foundations, United Nations Human Rights.