According, to Gus Liebenow author, of Liberia: The Quest for Democracy, the Kpelle are the largest tribe in Libering comprising 20 per cent of the total population, while the Gio makes up 9 per cent, the Kru 8 per cent and the Krahn 5 per cent (1987, 35). Thomas Sawyer, author of The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia, states that the people of Liberia are classified according to three ethnolinguistic groups: The Mel, Mande, and the Kwa-speaking (1992, 45). The Gio and the Kpelle belong to the Mande language group (ibid., 46), while the Kru and the Krahn belong to the Kwa-speaking group (ibid., 48), and the Mel is composed of the Gola and the Kissi (ibid., 46).

According to Martin Lowenkopf, author of Politics in Liberia: The Conservative Road to Development, chiefs, elders and priests have "immediate authority" over tribal people (1976, 24). "The authority has customarily been based upon military, religious, social, cultural, and economic sanctions in which secret societies play a vital role"

Secret societies for men called Poro and for women called Sande have existed among the Kpelle and Gio for a long time but "it is not known when the Poro emerged or how it emerged" Sawyer 1992, 50). According to Beryl Bellman, author of The Language of Secrecy: Symbols and Metaphors in Poro Ritual,

When a man joins the Poro and a woman the Sande, they both learn how to keep a secret and the consequences of inappropriate exposure. After iniation they are held responsible by the entire community for being able to keep a secret. Before joining the Poro a male cannot take part in any serious discussion where important decisions are made, as he is not considered trust-worthy. Likewise, before joining the Sande, a female is under moral constraints not to have sexual relations and is almost totally under the authority of her parents (1984, 8).

Liebenow states that the Poro was a very important secret society and served political, sacred, secular and socialization functions and describes it as

a sacred and secret arm of the political authority and intergroup diplomacy that helped to maintain stability through appeal to the gerontocractic and hierarchical principles derived from the ideal model of ranked-lineage structure (1987, 50).

According to the American Anthropologist, the Poro must approve of all political activities carried out by Kpelle chiefdoms, which varied in size but were organized around the Loi-Kalon or owner of the land and his immediate kinsmen. the Loi-Kalon personified the chiefdom's polity (1972 1220). The Ko-Kalon or the chief of war, trained young warriors and distributed the spoils of war (ibid.,1223). The Dazo or "bush devil" was also the chief and his function was to mediate between "the inner circle of the Poro and the rest of society" (ibid.), while teachers of particular skills were called Zo (ibid.).). The Dazo were hereditary while most Kpelle perceived the Zo as sent from God (American Anthropol., 1972, 1224). When the Zo died, his successor was chosen from his immediate family. American Anthropologist further states that "the dead Zo is washed, and the son washes in the same water; the son is then in possession of the powers of the dead Zo (ibid., 1224). Berryl Bellman (1984), explains that Zo is "the sacred ruling structure or priest structure of the Poro and the Sande" (ibid., 8). For detailed information on the customs and rituals of the Kpelle, please consult the attached documents.

The Kru are a costal people whereas the Krahn live in the Grand Gedeh county in the southeastern part of Liberia (Liebenow 1987, 38, Human Rights Watch/Africa 1991, 2). According to Human Rights Watch/Africa, the late president of Liberia, Samuel Doe, was a member of the Krahn tribe and for that reason "Grand Gedeh has been devastated by the fighting and systematically destroyed" (ibid., 4).

According to Augustine Konneh, author of Religion, Commerce, and Integration of the Mandigo in Liberia, the Gio inhabit the Nimba country but can also be found in parts of Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire (1996, 97). Their economy was based on land, which was "so vital that wars have been waged over its possession and use" (ibid., 97).

According to Lowenkopf, the Kwa-speaking Kru and Krahn are different from the other ethnic groups and did not have secret societies ( 1976, 28). Liebenow and Sawyer agree with Lowenkopf, but Sawyer adds that "although the Kwa-speaking societies hand no institution comparable to the Poro, there were organizations and secret societies that participated in the socialization processes, the resolution of conflict, and the fulfillment of a variety of social functions" (1992, 52). For additional information on the Kru and the Krahn, please consult the attached documents.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the DIRB within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum.

Bellman, Beryl L. 1984. The Language of Secrecy: Symbols & Metaphors in Poro Ritual.

New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Human Rights Watch/Africa. 21 October 1991. Liberia: The Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations since the November Cease-Fire. New York: Human Rights Watch/Africa.

American Anthroplogist [Washington, DC]. 1972. Vol. 74. Richard M. Fulton."The Political Structures and Functions of the Poro in Kpelle Society," pp.1218-1233.

Liebenow, Gus, J. 1987. Liberia: The Quest for Democracy. Bloomington:Indian University Press.

Lowenkopf, M. 1976. Politics in Liberia: The Conservative Road to Development. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press.

Sawyer, Amos. 1992. The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia: Tragedy and Challenge. San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies.

Bellman, Beryl L. 1984. The Language of Secrecy: Symbols & Metaphors in Poro Ritual.

New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, pp. 53-105.

American Anthroplogist [Washington, DC]. 1972. Vol. 74. Richard M. Fulton."The Political Structures and Functions of the Poro in Kpelle Society," pp.1218-1233.

Liebenow, Gus, J. 1987. Liberia: The Quest for Democracy. Bloomington:Indian University Press, 30-46.

Lowenkopf, M. 1976. Politics in Liberia: The Conservative Road to Development. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, pp. 24-46.

Sawyer, Amos. 1992. The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia: Tragedy and Challenge. San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, pp. 43-61.