Specific information on the chieftaincy of the Ga ethnic group is currently unavailable to the DIRB in Ottawa. However, according to a Ghanaian professor of political science at Bennett College in Greensboro, North Carolina, who based his information on Akan tradition and chieftaincy, the basic principles guarding the selection or rejection of a chief and the workings of the institution are basically the same across Ghana (9 May 1994). The professor explained that there may be some differences, but these are "minor" and may relate to the kinds of rituals performed during the enstoolment or destoolment processes (ibid.). According to Area Handbook for Ghana, the Ga idea of a chief was borrowed from the Akan (1971, 99).

The professor stated that in Ghanaian society, the chief is the head of the community, which is also the traditional area of his jurisdiction. A chief is selected for unique qualities that make him an excellent representative of the community (9 May 1994). The chief is the microcosm of what is good about the community and he serves as a link between his community and others. The professor is not aware of anyone being sanctioned for refusing to be a chief, but it is an honour that is rarely declined.

Traditionally, chiefs are ranked. At the summit of the institution is the king, whose title may differ from one ethnic group to another, followed by the paramount chiefs and their subordinate chiefs. The chief makes decisions on behalf of the community, but only after consulting with his council and sometimes with the community as a whole at general meetings. The social and political power of a chief may depend on the ethnic composition and wealth of the community.

Chiefs obtain their position through enstoolment (coronation) and can lose it through destoolment. The enstoolment process begins when the families contending for the position have agreed or decided upon the person to be appointed. The decision becomes final when the Queen Mother approves the selected person as capable of leading and representing the community. The role of the Queen Mother in the process is important as her consent is essential for enstoolment. Once approved, he undergoes secret rituals performed by the Queen Mother, supported by the elders of the community. This information on the role of the Queen Mother is corroborated in Area Handbook for Ghana (1971, 122).

The professor stated that the public aspect of the enstoolment process is activated by the introduction of the chief to the community at a traditional durbar (9 May 1994). The chief pledges his oath of allegiance to the community, to respect and protect it at all times and above all to uphold its traditions. Despite this public acclamation, the enstoolment is not official until approved by the government, through publication in the government Gazette.

Traditionally, only the Queen Mother can demand destoolment. However, with the involvement of governments in the process, some chiefs have been destooled without regard to the traditional authority of the Queen Mother and her council of elders. According to tradition, a chief can be destooled for breaking the oath of allegiance to the community. Like enstoolment, destoolment is not final until approved by the government. Governments have customarily respected the views of the traditional councils in these matters, however there have been occasions when governments have unilaterally destooled chiefs whom they considered to be "uncooperative" and "disruptive."

The professor explained that the post-independence involvement of governments in chieftaincy matters is a carry-over from practices of the colonial period. Chieftaincy has been a very powerful traditional institution in Ghana. Governments have therefore, used the institution to ensure their presence throughout the country, particularly in the rural areas. During the colonial era, this indirect rule through chiefs enabled the government to control the local populations. Post-independence governments continued the process because it was in their interest to be seen to be present across the country.

It has been the practice, particularly for paramount chiefs, to swear allegiance to new governments. This practice guarantees that their traditional areas will be remembered during the handing out of government largesse. The practice has subsequently identified certain paramount chiefs with particular regimes. Incoming governments that did not particularly like those they succeeded, did not find it difficult to withhold recognition from certain chiefs. According to the professor, because of this desire to intervene in the institution of chieftaincy, Ghanaian governments have inadvertently contributed greatly to chieftaincy disputes. This habit has undoubtedly destabilized the system from time to time.

The 1992 Ghana constitution attempts to eliminate the tendency of governments and powerful individuals to interfere in chieftaincy affairs. For instance, the constitution states that "chieftaincy together with its traditional councils as established by customary law and usage is ... guaranteed" (Kludze May 1993, 190). For further corroboration of the professor's information, please refer to the attachment from Area Handbook for Ghana. For details on the structure of chieftaincy in Ghana and the attempts to make it a peaceful and unifying institution, please refer to the attachment from the 1992 Ghana constitution.

This response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the DIRB within time constraints. This response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum.

Area Handbook for Ghana. 1971. Edited by Irving Kaplan. Washington DC: American University.

Kludze, A.K.P. May 1993. "Ghana," Constitutions of the Countries of the World. Edited by Albert T. Blaustein and Gisbert H. Flanz. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications Inc.

Professor of political science, Bennett College, Greensboro, NC. 9 May 1994. Telephone interview.

Area Handbook for Ghana. 1971. Edited by Irving Kaplan. Washington DC: American University, pp. 99, 120-3.

Kludze, A.K.P. 1993. "Ghana," Constitutions of the Countries of the World. Edited by Albert T. Blaustein and Gisbert H. Flanz. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications Inc., pp. 190-4.