According to reports published in 1999, the Niger Delta Volunteer Force (NDVF), also known as the Delta Volunteer Service, was founded in 1966 by Isaac Boro (also known as Jasper Adaka Boro) and others (Le Monde Diplomatique Feb. 1999; HRW Jan. 1999; Post Express 10 Nov. 1999). After leading a short-lived uprising against the Nigerian government, Boro and the other leaders were captured by security forces and sentenced to death (ibid.; HRW Jan. 1999). However, they were released from prison following the outbreak of the Biafra war (ibid.).

In October 1998, the NDVF was re-formed by a coalition of "43 militant Ijaw youth organizations," reportedly to "protect" the Ijaw community and to press their demands for jobs and resources from the Nigerian government and oil companies operating in the Niger Delta (IPS 26 Oct. 1998). Variously described as the "main military wing" of the Ijaw (ibid. 4 Jan. 1999) and the "youth wing" of the Ijaw National Congress (INC) (P.M. News 8 Dec. 1999; Post Express 2 Jan. 1999), the NDVF has been involved in a number of violent incidents in 1998 and 1999, and its members reportedly subjected to attacks and in some cases death at the hands of security forces personnel (P.M. News 8 Dec. 1999; Xinhua 5 Jan. 1999; The News 11 Jan. 1999; The Guardian 5 Jan. 1999). According to P.M. News, Warri-based human rights lawyer Bello Orubebe was the coordinator of the NDVF as recently as December 1999 (8 Dec. 1999). In separate reports, Ekiokenagha Zuokumor (also known as Ekioemi Zuwokomo) was described as the NDVF's president (Post Express 1 Jan. 1999; ibid. 2 Jan. 1999; Tempo 27 Jan. 1999), and Preye Williams as its secretary-general (Post Express 2 Jan. 1999).

The following limited chronology provides additional information on the activities of the NDVF and the treatment of its members and sympathizers by Nigerian authorities since October 1998.

In October 1998, fighting between Ijaws and Itsekiris over the location of the local government headquarters in Warri resulted in at least 10 deaths and the destruction of more than 90 homes (IPS 26 Oct. 1998). According to IPS, the NDVF was created at this time by Ijaw youths in order to "protect" their community (ibid.).

On 11 December 1998, Ijaw youths from roughly 500 communities met in Kaiama, Bayelsa State (Post Express 1 Jan. 1999). During this meeting, they formed the Ijaw Youth Council (IYC) and issued the "Kaiama Declaration" (HRW May 1999; Post Express 1 Jan. 1999), in which they announced

their resolve to cease recognizing all undemocratic laws that rob the Ijaw people the right to ownership and control of their lives and resources; the immediate withdrawal of all security forces employed to protect oil installations in their area; the immediate stoppage of all oil exploration and exploitation activities in the Ijaw area as well as immediate withdrawal from Ijaw territories by all oil companies and contractors on or before Thursday [31 December 1998] (ibid.).

However, on 30 December 1998, following appeals by the INC and traditional Ijaw rulers, NDVF leaders issued a statement announcing that they would extend their deadline by an additional 60 days, and that their members would effect a temporary withdrawal from the oil flow stations they had previously occupied to press their demands (ibid.). On the same day, what reportedly began as a peaceful demonstration by approximately 2,000 Ijaw youths in Yenagoa ended in violence when soldiers fired on marchers as they approached a government building (Post Express 2 Jan. 1999; HRW May 1999). According to Human Rights Watch, at least 6 young people were killed by soldiers and as many as 25 arrested (May 1999). In response to the violence, Bayelsa State Governor Lt. Col. Paul Obi declared a state of emergency, which NDVF leaders described as an "outright declaration of war on the Ijaws, vowing 'to fight until the last Ijaw son or daughter is killed'" (Post Express 2 Jan. 1999).

According to Human Rights Watch, security forces and Ijaw youths were involved in a number of armed clashes over the course of the following days, and "many people" were reported to have been severely beaten by law enforcement personnel manning roadblocks in the region (May 1999).

The dusk-to-dawn curfew was lifted on 4 January 1999 after the government "deployed warships and more troops in Niger Delta areas to quell violent protests by restive Ijaw youths" (Xinhua 5 Jan. 1999).

In April 1999, a delegation representing NDVF member organizations attended a meeting in Abuja between President-Elect General Olusegun Obasanjo and community representatives from oil-producing areas (Post Express 4 Apr. 1999). After the meeting, the delegation's leader, Hendricks Opukeme, called upon the government to take immediate steps to address the Ijaw youths' demands (ibid.).

On 4 December 1999, security forces reportedly killed seven individuals in Warri during an operation to recover weapons allegedly stolen earlier by Ijaw youths (P.M. News 8 Dec. 1999). However, NDVF coordinator Bello Orubebe rejected the assertion that the soldiers had been engaged in a weapon recovery operation, alleging instead that they had gone "door-to-door and demanded money and other valuable household items which they carted away" (ibid.).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum.

The Guardian [London]. 5 January 1999. Chris McGreal. "Clashes Over Oilfields 'Kill 30.'" (NEXIS)

Human Rights Watch (HRW). May 1999. Nigeria: Crackdown in the Niger Delta. http://www.hrw.org [Accessed 16 Dec. 1999]

_____. January 1999. The Price of Oil: Corporate Responsibility and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria's Oil Producing Communities. http://www.hrw.org [Accessed 30 Nov. 1999]

Inter Press Service (IPS). 4 January 1999. Toye Olori. "Politics-Africa: Violence Threatens Civilian Rule in Nigeria." (NEXIS)

_____. 26 October 1998. Remi Oyo. "Energy-Nigeria: Ethnic Clashes Worry Investors." (NEXIS)

Le Monde Diplomatique [Paris]. February 1999. Joelle Stolz. "Retour des civils, crise du pétrole, trouble interethniques : les multiples fractures de Nigeria." (NEXIS)

The News [Lagos]. 11 January 1999. Tajudeen Suleiman. "Nigeria: Drumbeats of War." (NEXIS)

P.M. News [Lagos]. 8 December 1999. Okafor Ofiebor. "Nigeria: New Raid on Ijaw Enclave Two Fresh Bodies Found." (NEXIS)

Post Express [Lagos]. 10 November 1999. Tony Iyare. "Saro-Wiwa's Burial: The Lingering MOSOP Crisis." www.postexpresswired.com [Accessed 10 Dec. 1999]

_____. 4 April 1999. Josiah Emerole. "Ijaw Youths Reject Obasanjo." www.postexpresswired.com [Accessed 10 Dec. 1999]

_____. 2 January 1999. Iheanyi Amuta and Bassey Udo. "More Ijaw Youths Killed in Bayelsa." www.postexpresswired.com [Accessed 10 Dec. 1999]

_____. 1 January 1999. Bassey Udo. "Obi Declares State of Emergency in Bayelsa...As Ijaws Backdown on Ultimatum." www.postexpresswired.com [Accessed 10 Dec. 1999]

Tempo [Lagos]. 27 January 1999. "Nigeria: Harrowing Tales from the Delta." (Africa News/NEXIS)

Xinhua News Agency. 5 January 1999. "Nigeria Lifts Curfew in Niger Delta Areas." (NEXIS)

P.M. News [Lagos]. 8 December 1999. Okafor Ofiebor. "New Raid on Ijaw Enclave Two Fresh Bodies Found." (NEXIS)