The following information was provided by an international development consultant to such organizations as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and UN Habitat, who is also a former senior lecturer at the University of Cape Coast (UCC), in Ghana, and whose PhD thesis was based on the ethnography of Obo, Kwawu:

According to the 1960 census, which is the latest [and] most comprehensive anywhere, the Akan people-that is, people of ethnic groups speaking Akan languages-amount to 46 per cent of the population. Another 20-25 per cent speak an Akan language as a second language.

Although there are dozens of separate political categories (tribes if you wish, but at a slightly higher political level than the anthropological category of tribe) within the Akan group, they are remarkably similar (like German culture in Austria and parts of Switzerland). They also extend about one third the way west into Cote d'Ivoire, in the southern half of the country.

I would say that the consequences of refusing to accept an office is about the same for all of them. Young men do not want to [be] chosen, because it takes up their time and money, and has few rewards they seek. They incur the wrath of the elders, but there is no evidence of any harm done as a result. They are in no danger.

What little I know of the patrilineal Ewe, found mainly in the Volta Region of Ghana and in Togo-the second largest ethnic category-and among the patrilineal Ga-Adangbe, around Accra, and the hierarchical patrilineal Moshe groups such as the Dagomba around Tamale and the rest of the Northern Region and up to Ouagadougou, (who have skins instead of stools to signify chieftaincy) ... the same can be said. ...

I have discussed this with some esteemed friends, especially ... the nominal, informal head of the Ghana community on Vancouver Island (friend of mine since the late 60s when we were both grad students at UBC), and he concurs (29 Apr. 2003).

In subsequent correspondence, the international development consultant provided the following additional observations:

Judging from discussions among Ghanaians here [in Victoria, British Colombia], it appears that the notion of physical punishment for refusing an offered stool is a belief among evangelical Christians, probably originating from missionaries who preached that traditional beliefs in ancestors and gods (integral to the traditional chieftaincy system) was devil worship. There are no known reported cases of anybody being harmed for refusing an offered stool. (Those that refuse, usually young men who would see the duties as an imposition, simply stay away for a few years until the elders cool off, thus they do not get access to stool land during that time; [but] most of [them] are pursuing an urban career so do not feel the loss).

Other Ghanaians are quite offended that such ideas are being perpetrated; ... that their culture and society is not so harsh (22 May 2003).

The Director of the African Studies Centre at the University of Cambridge and co-convenor of a January 2003 conference held in Accra, Ghana, entitled "Chieftaincy in Africa: Culture, Governance and Development" corroborated the information above stating that, "in general, there are no serious negative consequences from turning down a stool position" (22 May 2003a) and that "I haven't heard of anyone being targeted for actually refusing a stool" (23 May 2003).

An adjunct professor of African Studies at Indiana University and author of "Asante Queenmothers: A Study in Female Authority," provided the following information regarding the consequences for refusing a stool:

As far as I know, there would not be any penalty or danger for refusing a stool among the Akan. There is nothing that I know of that dictates that in custom, nor have I heard of it in practice. People may, in fact, get very upset, and may work very hard to pressure a person. For example, there is often competition among lineages for which one of the qualified persons is going to be the chief (or queenmother). And it may be that the choice of Lineage X is going to be Kofi, but Kofi really doesn't want to do it because he is living in London and doing well and doesn't want to come back, but if he doesn't come back, the lineage will lose out to another lineage and it will be hard to ever get it back, so that branch of the family will do everything they can to persuade the person. But I've not ever heard of danger or violence. That doesn't mean it can't happen. There is all kinds of violence that has occurred involving stool disputes-but those are about one person wanting to be the chief, and a group of people trying to prevent that, or to destool him from the position. Very rarely does it occur that there is any dispute about a queenmother. But, certainly, in the 80s and 90s there was lots of violence in these affairs. One of the things the new Asantehene said when he "came on the stool" was that he was going to put a stop to the constant conflict over chieftaincy (6 May 2003).

Although one academic source suggests that harm could be directed towards an individual who refuses an offered stool (Adjunct professor of sociology 5 May 2003), corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate. As well, no documentary evidence regarding the consequences for refusing an inherited position of tribal or clan chief could be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.

Regarding the issue of state protection, the Director of the African Studies Centre at the University of Cambridge stated that "the police would most definitely get involved in protecting any affronted party. ... It's been a democracy for a while now and there are several legal avenues a person can take to redress imbalances" (22 May 2003b).

According to an adjunct professor of sociology at the University of Victoria, other levels of authority created by the state for resolving chieftaincy issues are traditional councils and regional and national houses of chiefs (5 May 2003). At a recent forum organized for Ga District chiefs, civil society organizations and the District Assembly, which was intended to bring civil society closer to district developmental issues, the common chieftaincy issues raised included land disputes and the mismanagement of funds raised through the sale of lands (The Accra Daily Mail 30 Apr. 2003a). Nii Mohenu, the chief of Abokobi, stated that another "common problem identified was two or more chiefs claiming authority over a single village" (ibid.). In a separate article by The Accra Daily Mail, the Central Regional Minister, Isaac Eduosar Edumadze, reportedly stated that land and chieftaincy disputes are the major problems confronting his region and that 28 chieftaincy cases were pending at the Regional House of Chiefs and 22 appeal cases in the various traditional councils (30 Apr. 2003b). The disputes are over "who qualifies to occupy a stool either after the death of a paramount chief or even when the chief is still alive" (The Accra Daily Mail 30 Apr. 2003b). The adjunct professor of sociology at the University of Victoria added that "there have been several instances where these associations of chiefs failed to resolve disputes. In those circumstances the police, and sometimes the army, step in to suppress the resultant violence" (5 May 2003).

For additional information on succession traditions for inherited positions including the consequences for refusing the position, please consult GHA39781.E of 1 November 2002.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim to refugee status or asylum. Please find below the list of additional sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

References

The Accra Daily Mail. 30 April 2003a. Vol. 4, No. 309. "Ga District Records High Chieftaincy Disputes." http://www.accra-mail.com/story.aspID=4411 [Accessed 30 Apr. 2003]

_____. 30 April 2003b. Vol. 4, No. 309. Kweku Darko-Ankrah and Charles Mensah. "Chieftaincy and Land Disputes: Bane of the Central Region." http://www.accra-mail.com/story.aspID=3107 [Accessed 30 Apr. 2003]

Adjunct professor of African Studies, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. 6 May 2003. Correspondence.

Adjunct professor of sociology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Colombia. 5 May 2003. Correspondence.

Director, African Studies Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. 23 May 2003. Correspondence.

_____. 22 May 2003a. Correspondence.

_____. 22 May 2003b. Correspondence.

International development consultant, Victoria, British Columbia, and former senior lecturer, University of Cape Coast (UCC), Ghana. 22 May 2003. Correspondence.

_____. 29 April 2003. Correspondence.

Additional Sources Consulted

Africa Research Bulletin

IRB Databases

NEXIS

The Institute of African Studies at the University of Ghana was unable to provide information on the above-mentioned topic within the time constraints of this Response.

Unsuccessful attempts to contact other academic sources.

Internet sites, including:

Accra Daily Mail

Africa Confidential

Africa Online

AllAfrica.com

BBC Africa

The Daily Guide

European Country of Origin Information Network

Ghana Review

The Ghanaian Chronicle

Ghanaweb.com

Ingenta

Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN)

News in Ghana

Norwegian Council for Africa

Princeton University - African Studies Resources

U.S. Library of Congress: Ghana Country Study

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