Kenya: Situation and treatment of single women and of women who head their own households, including their ability to live on their own and access housing, income, health care, and support services, particularly in Nairobi (2019–June 2021) [KEN200668.E]

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Treatment of Single, Divorced and Widowed Women in Kenya

The Women's Empowerment Index (WEI) [1] in Kenya indicates that women who are separated and widowed are "less likely to be empowered" [2] (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, 16). Based on an analysis of data from the latest Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) [3] conducted in 2014, the same source provides the following statistics on the "rate[s] of empowerment" for women disaggregated by marital status: single at 38.1 percent, married or living with a partner at 27.3 percent, divorced at 25.2 percent, separated at 17.8 percent and widowed at 11.8 percent (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, 16). According to the 2014 KDHS, 32.2 percent of households in Kenya were headed by women, 27.3 percent in urban areas and 35.8 percent in rural areas (ICF International and KNBS of Kenya Dec. 2015, 22). The WEI states that the incidence of women's empowerment is 30 percent in households headed by men compared to 28 percent in those headed by women (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, 16).

An April 2021 article by Nation, a news website (Nation n.d.a) based in Nairobi (Nation n.d.b), indicates that there are "approximately" 4 million widows in Kenya according to the 2019 census, and that they face challenges such as "disinheritance, discrimination and harmful traditional practices that include cleansing rites and sexual violence" (Nation 26 Apr. 2021). Human Rights Watch (HRW) notes that in rural Kenya, where residents have "limited access to justice," discriminatory traditional practices towards widows "operate by default" (HRW 7 Mar. 2020). Similarly, a report by the Centre for Rights Education and Awareness (CREAW), a "national," "feminist" women's rights NGO in Kenya (CREAW n.d.), cites the Chief of Kithirune West ward in Meru County as stating that the community is "oppressive" in its treatment of widows, with their property rights "disregard[ed]" according to community customs (CREAW 2019, 19).

2. Legislation
2.1 Constitution of Kenya

The Constitution of Kenya, 2010 provides the following:

27. Equality and freedom from discrimination

… (3) Women and men have the right to equal treatment, including the right to equal opportunities in political, economic, cultural and social spheres.

(4) The State shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground, including race, sex, pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language, or birth.

40. Protection of right to property

(1) Subject to Article 65, every person has the right, either individually or in association with others, to acquire and own property—

  1. of any description; and
  2. in any part of Kenya.

(2) Parliament shall not enact a law that permits the State or any person—

  1. to arbitrarily deprive a person of property of any description or of any interest in, or right over, any property …

60. Principles of land policy

(1) Land in Kenya shall be held, used and managed in a manner that is equitable, efficient, productive and sustainable, and in accordance with the following principles—

f. elimination of gender discrimination in law, customs and practices related to land and property in land. (Kenya 2010, Sec. 27, 40, 60, bold in original)

Regarding the rights within a marriage, section 45(3) of the Constitution of Kenya, 2010 provides the following: "Parties to a marriage are entitled to equal rights at the time of the marriage, during the marriage and at the dissolution of the marriage" (Kenya 2010).

Regarding reproductive health care, the Constitution of Kenya, 2010 provides the following:

26.Right to life

(4) Abortion is not permitted unless, in the opinion of a trained health professional, there is need for emergency treatment, or the life or health of the mother is in danger, or if permitted by any other written law.

43.Economic and social rights

(1) Every person has the right—

  1. to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care… (Kenya 2010, Sec. 26, 43, bold in original)

2.2 Marriage Act

The Marriage Act, 2014 provides the following regarding the maintenance of spouses and orders of maintenance:

77. (1) The court may order a person to pay maintenance to a spouse or a former spouse—

  1. if the person has refused or neglected to provide for the spouse or former spouse as required by this Act;
  2. if the person has deserted the other spouse or former spouse, for as long as the desertion continues;
  3. during the course of any matrimonial proceedings;
  4. when granting or after granting a decree of separation or divorce; or
  5. if, after making a decree of presumption of death, the spouse or former is found to be alive.

78. Except where an order for maintenance of a spouse is expressed to be for any shorter period or where any such order has revoked [sic] and subject to section, the order shall lapse—

  1. if the maintenance was unsecured, on the death of the spouse;
  2. if the maintenance was secured, on the death of the spouse in whose favour it was made; or
  3. where the person being maintained is subsequently able to support himself or herself.

79. An order of maintenance shall lapse upon the remarriage of the beneficiary of the order. (Kenya 2014, Sec. 77, 78, 79, bold in original)

2.3 Matrimonial Property Act

The Matrimonial Property Act, 2013 provides the following:

4. Equal status of spouses - Despite any other law, a married woman has the same rights as a married man —

  1. to acquire, administer, hold, control, use and dispose of property whether movable or immovable.

6. Meaning of matrimonial property

(1) For the purposes of this Act, matrimonial property means—

  1. the matrimonial home or homes;
  2. household goods and effects in the matrimonial home or homes; or
  3. any other immovable and movable property jointly owned and acquired during the subsistence of the marriage.

(2) Despite subsection (1), trust property, including property held in trust under customary law, does not form part of matrimonial property.

(3) Despite subsection (1), the parties to an intended marriage may enter into an agreement before their marriage to determine their property rights.

(4) A party to an agreement made under subsection (3) may apply to the Court to set aside the agreement and the Court may set aside the agreement if it determines that the agreement was influenced by fraud, coercion or is manifestly unjust.

7. Ownership of matrimonial property

Subject to section 6(3), ownership of matrimonial property vests in the spouses according to the contribution of either spouse towards its acquisition, and shall be divided between the spouses if they divorce or their marriage is otherwise dissolved. (Kenya 2013, Sec.4, 6, 7, bold in original)

The Matrimonial Property Act further provides the following definition regarding the interpretation of "contribution":

2. Interpretation - In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires— “contribution” means monetary and non-monetary contribution and includes—

  1. domestic work and management of the matrimonial home;
  2. child care;
  3. companionship;
  4. management of family business or property; and
  5. farm work. … (Kenya 2013, Sec. 5, bold in original)

2.4 Law of Succession Act

The Law of Succession Act provides the following:

26. Provisions for dependants not adequately provided for by will or on intestacy - Where a person dies after the commencement of this Act, and so far as succession to his property is governed by the provisions of this Act, then on the application by or on behalf of a dependant, the court may, if it is of the opinion that the disposition of the deceased’s estate effected by his will, or by gift in contemplation of death, or the law relating to intestacy, or the combination of the will, gift and law, is not such as to make reasonable provision for that dependant, order that such reasonable provision as the court thinks fit shall be made for that dependant out of the deceased’s net estate.

29. Meaning of dependant

For the purposes of this Part, “dependant” means—

  1. the wife or wives, or former wife or wives, and the children of the deceased whether or not maintained by the deceased immediately prior to his death;
  2. such of the deceased’s parents, step-parents, grand-parents, grandchildren, step-children, children whom the deceased had taken into his family as his own, brothers and sisters, and half-brothers and half-sisters, as were being maintained by the deceased immediately prior to his death; and
  3. where the deceased was a woman, her husband if he was being maintained by her immediately prior to the date of her death.

35. Where intestate has left one surviving spouse and child or children

(1) Subject to the provisions of section 40, where an intestate has left one surviving spouse and a child or children, the surviving spouse shall be entitled to—

  1. the personal and household effects of the deceased absolutely; and
  2. a life interest in the whole residue of the net intestate estate:
    Provided that, if the surviving spouse is a widow, that interest shall determine upon her re-marriage to any person. … (Kenya 1972, Sec. 26, 29, 35, bold in original)

The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) developed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) states that customary and tribal laws on inheritance vary and further cites the American Bar Association (ABA)'s International Model Project for Women's Rights (IMPOWR) [4] as indicating that inheritance rights are limited to unmarried daughters in certain districts, while in others, married daughters are "recognised as equal to sons and enjoy the same rights" (OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 5). According to the same source, customary and tribal laws replace the Law of SuccessionAct under certain circumstances, per section 32 (OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 5), which reads as follows:

32. Excluded property - The provisions of this Part shall not apply to —

  1. agricultural land and crops thereon; or
  2. livestock,
    in various Districts set out in the Schedule:

    West Pokot
    Wajir
    Samburu
    Lamu
    Turkana
    Garissa
    Isiolo
    Kajiado
    Marsabit
    Tana River
    Mandera
    Narok

(Kenya 1972, Sec. 32, bold in original)

2.5 Land Registration Act

The Land Registration Act, 2012 provides the following:

Overriding interests.

28. Unless the contrary is expressed in the register, all registered land shall be subject to the following overriding interests as may for the time being subsist and affect the same, without their being noted on the register—

  1. spousal rights over matrimonial property …

Co-ownership and other relationships between spouses.

93. (1) Subject to the law on matrimonial property, if a spouse obtains land for the co-ownership and use of both spouses or, all the spouses—

  1. there shall be a presumption that the spouses shall hold the land as joint tenants … (Kenya 2012, Sec. 28, 93, bold in original)

The same source further provides the following regarding the transmission of land upon the death of a tenant or a change in name:

Transmission on death of joint proprietor.

60. If any of the joint tenants of any land, lease or charge dies, the Registrar shall, upon proof of the death, delete the name of the deceased tenant from the register by registering the death certificate.

Rectification by Registrar.

79.

(3) Upon proof of the change of the name or address of any proprietor, the Registrar shall, on the written application of the proprietor, make an entry in the register to record the change. (Kenya 2012, Sec. 60, 79, bold in original)

2.6 Employment Act

The Employment Act, 2007, provides the following:

5. Discrimination in employment

(1) It shall be the duty of the Minister, labour officers and the Industrial Court—

  1. to promote equality of opportunity in employment in order to eliminate discrimination in employment

(3) No employer shall discriminate directly or indirectly, against an employee or prospective employee or harass an employee or prospective employee—

  1. on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, nationality, ethnic or social origin, disability, pregnancy, mental status or HIV status;
  2. in respect of recruitment, training, promotion, terms and conditions of employment, termination of employment or other matters arising out of the employment.

(4) It is not discrimination to—

  1. take affirmative action measurers consistent with the promotion of equality or the elimination of discrimination in the workplace;
  2. distinguish, exclude or prefer any person on the basis of an inherent requirement of a job;

(5) An employer shall pay his employees equal remuneration for work of equal value.

(6) An employer who contravenes the provision of the section commits an offence. … (Kenya 2007, Sec. 5, bold in original)

2.7 Islamic Law

HRW states that divorce takes "various forms" according to different interpretations of Sharia (Islamic) law; in Muslim communities operating under Sharia law in Kenya, the practice of talaq (a form of divorce enacted by the husband repeating the word talaq three times) can leave women with "no recourse and no access to matrimonial property," as interpretation of the law depends on the judge (HRW 25 June 2020a). Similarly, the OECD's SIGI states that Muslim women in Kenya "do not enjoy and benefit from the equal inheritance rights" since they are "exempt" from the Law of Succession Act (OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 6), of which section 2(3) provides the following:

Subject to subsection (4), the provision of this Act shall not apply to testamentary or intestate succession to the estate of any person who at the time of his death is a Muslim to the intent that in lieu of such provisions the devolution of the estate of any such person shall be governed by Muslim law. (Kenya 1972, Sec. 2(3))

3. Access to Property and Land

According to a May 2021 article by Nation, although the Constitution protects women's right to "own, access and inherit land and other forms of property," women "still struggle to realise this right" (Nation 20 May 2021). A 2020 HRW report on women's property rights in Kenya indicates that "positive but ambiguous laws, antiquated laws, and discriminatory social and cultural norms" make it difficult for married, divorced, separated, and widowed women to claim matrimonial property (HRW 25 June 2020b). According to sources, women [and society (Nation 20 May 2021)] may lack awareness of the law (Nation 20 May 2021) or women's property rights, including how to "effectively" claim these rights (OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 13).

A 2021 report on women's land rights by Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA)-Kenya [6] notes that while there have been "positive steps" taken towards gender equality in law, those responsible for enforcing the laws are "deeply embedded within … patriarchal cultures [and] fai[l] to assist women in enforcing their rights[,] including rights around land" (FIDA-Kenya 2021a, 28). The May 2021 Nation article states that since customary law "favour[s]" men and decision-making bodies for land matters are "male-dominated," women are prevented from exercising their property and inheritance rights and participating in economic activities, leaving them to "rely on their spouses or male relatives for survival" (Nation 20 May 2021).

The 2021 FIDA-Kenya report notes that although "women provide the majority of the labor on land," they are not its "primary and legally identified owners" (FIDA-Kenya 2021a, 14). A report on gender statistics in Kenya for 2018 by the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) and UN Women similarly indicates that, in rural areas, "women produce most of the food but hold title to almost no land" (KNBS of Kenya and UN Women 1 Apr. 2020, 25). According to the May 2021 Nation article, "[o]nly one percent of women in Kenya have land registered solely in their names, and an even smaller percentage jointly registered with their spouses" (Nation 20 May 2021). Similarly, a report by the Kenya Land Alliance (KLA) [5] states, based on an analysis of 1,000,099 title deeds issued by the government between 2013 and 2017, that 103,043 of these (10.3 percent) were issued to women; of 10,129,704 hectares of land titled from 2013 to 2017, 163,253 hectares (1.62 percent) was titled to women (KLA 2018, 3).

The 2020 HRW report notes that under "lineage systems," which impact "many parts of Kenya," the husband holds the lineage land in trust under customary law and the wife "does not acquire absolute user rights" (HRW 25 June 2020b). Based on 64 interviews with divorced or separated women, lawyers and judicial officials and representatives of women's property rights NGOs in the counties of Kakamega and Kilifi, the same source adds that "[m]any" divorced or separated women interviewed by HRW did not petition for a share of the land since the land belonged to the husband's family and not to the husband "directly" (HRW 25 June 2020b). A February 2021 Nation article states that

the fear of intimidation from the husband or his relatives and traditional dispute resolution that reinforces discrimination means [divorcing women] leave with little more than a few personal belongings.

In most cases, the elders enable the woman to remove her personal belongings from the home but are very clear that she cannot be given a share of the house or land. (Nation 22 Feb. 2021)

The 2020 HRW report states that divorcing women face "multiple barriers" if they wish to access justice through the courts to claim matrimonial property, including "inadequate access to relevant information, costs of legal proceedings, and long distances to courts" (HRW 25 June 2020b). The same source notes that while legally both "monetary and non-monetary" contributions should be considered when deciding property distribution in divorce proceedings [see section 2.3 of this Response], the law is unclear on what "constitute[s] proof of contribution"; this has led "some" judges to ask for receipts as proof, which "may discriminate against some women whose principal contribution was non-monetary" (HRW 25 June 2020b). The same source adds that there is a "lack of a consistent system or valuation methodology" on calculating contributions, with some judges recognizing women's "unpaid care and domestic work, while others do not" (HRW 25 June 2020b).

Sources indicate that the Law of SuccessionAct "discriminate[s] against women and girls" (HRW 25 June 2020b) or contains provisions that perpetuate "discrimination and negative stereotypes against women" (FIDA-Kenya 2021a, 37). The same sources explain that under this law, the surviving spouse inherits "life interest" ["use rights" (HRW 25 June 2020b)] in the deceased spouse's property, [such as their house and land (HRW 25 June 2020b)]; however, a widow will lose this life interest if she remarries, while a widower will not (HRW 25 June 2020b; FIDA-Kenya 2021a, 37). Sources state that widows are ["at times" (CREAW 2019, 19)] evicted from their homes (CREAW 2019, 19; HRW 7 Mar. 2020), even though "[f]orcibly evicting a widow from her matrimonial home and land is illegal under Kenyan law" (HRW 7 Mar. 2020).

3.1 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response. An article from CIO East Africa, a magazine for the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) industry in East Africa (CIOEast Africa n.d.), cites data from Mizizi Africa Homes, a property development company in Kenya, as indicating that "single women own 67 per cent of units in four of its affordable housing projects, while single men own less than 10 per cent," and that most of these women are single mothers under 30 years of age (CIO East Africa 1 Sept. 2020). However, an article by the Standard, a Kenyan newspaper, reports that landlords in Nairobi's Eastlands, "claiming that their houses have been turned into sex dens," are checking that potential female tenants are married or have "'serious boyfriends'," and rejecting single women (The Standard [2019]).

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a Vice Chancellor at Amref International University in Kenya who specializes in sexual, reproductive and maternal health stated that in Nairobi, "a woman will settle without difficulty if she has money to pay for housing," but added that "informal settlements are generally unsafe, irrespective of marital status" (Vice Chancellor 15 June 2021). FIDA-Kenya indicated in correspondence with the Research Directorate that "women without male support are likely to face difficulties" in Nairobi "because of the high cost of living," as well as the "influx [of] rural-urban migra[nts]" and "limited job opportunities" (FIDA-Kenya 21 June 2021). According to the same source, "most people" are "unable to access formal employment opportunities" due to rural-urban migration and the impacts of COVID-19; women who lack support are "likely" to work in the informal sector with low pay and no social security benefits, which affects their ability to access housing and health care (FIDA-Kenya 21 June 2021).

4. Access to Income, Employment and Financial Resources

FIDA-Kenya indicated that there is nothing that inhibits a woman "without male support from accessing income or employment" (FIDA-Kenya 21 June 2021). According to the same source, "the legislative and policy framework in Kenya provides an enabling environment for the realization of gender equality in the workplace and by extension, protects [the ability of] women without male support to [access] income and employment" (FIDA-Kenya 21 June 2021). Similarly, the WEI finds that single women are more empowered (64.9 percent) than married women (35.8 percent) when it comes to "continuous, paid employment" (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, 11). However, the 2021 Gender Fact Sheet developed by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) states that "[l]imited control over benefits from land and other resources limits women’s participation in the economy, particularly as producers and market actors" and that "unpaid childcare and domestic work limits women’s contribution in and benefits from productive activities, their mobility, and access to market resources and information while participating in the economy" (US 2021, 1).

According to the OECD's SIGI, women, both married and unmarried, have the "same right as men" to open a bank account or obtain credit (OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 13–14). The US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2020 states that while the law prohibits employment and occupation discrimination based on sex [see Section 2.6 of this Response] and other criteria, the government did not "effectively enforce the law" (US 30 Mar. 2021, 55). According to the same source,

[p]enalties for discrimination were not commensurate with those for comparable offenses. Gender-based discrimination in employment and occupation occurred, although the law mandates non[-]discrimination based on gender in hiring. The average monthly income of women was approximately two-thirds that of men. Women had difficulty working in non[-]traditional fields, received slower promotions, and were more likely to be dismissed. … Women who tried to establish their own informal businesses were subjected to discrimination and harassment. (US 30 Mar. 2021, 55)

A report by the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and the Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM) [7] indicates that manufacturing in Kenya is "predominately" owned and staffed by men "across all subsectors" (ICRW and KAM 2020, 1). The same source indicates that, according to women working in the sector, the policies of manufacturing companies are "not gender-responsive", and that as a result in gender disparities exist in "pay, promotions, and job security" (ICRW and KAM 2020, 1). The ICRW and KAM report states that for women entrepreneurs in manufacturing, the "most common sources for start-up capital included family savings, partnerships and loans from financial institutions" (ICRW and KAM 2020, 1). Sources indicate that "most" women cannot meet the [high (The Star 30 Apr. 2021)] collateral requirements to obtain financing (The Star 30 Apr. 2021; ICRW and KAM 2020, 1).

5. Access to Health Care

The KDHS provides the following statistics of women ages 15–49 who reported "serious problems in accessing health care for themselves":

Marital status (percentage) Getting permission to go for treatment (percentage) Getting money for treatment (percentage) Distance to health facility (percentage) Not wanting to go alone (percentage) At least one problem accessing health care (percentage)
Never married 6.0 31.6 18.1 11.7 40.5
Divorced, separated or widowed 6.3 46.6 25.0 11.5 53.7

(ICF International and KNBS of Kenya Dec. 2015, 137)

The WEI reports that 92.8 percent of unmarried women are "empowered" (able to "easily" get permission) when seeking medical care for themselves (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, 10, 11). The Vice Chancellor similarly stated that "empowered" women can make health decisions for themselves; however, "illiterate poor women" rely on men for decision-making "because they need financial support to execute the decisions" (Vice Chancellor 15 June 2021). FIDA-Kenya indicated that while "the legislative and policy framework in Kenya provides a conducive environment for a woman without male support to receive healthcare," including a constitutional right to reproductive health care [see section 2.1 of this Response], "a lot of violations with respect to reproductive health rights are reported" (FIDA-Kenya 21 June 2021). A 2020 Thomson Reuters Foundation article cites Kenyan charities campaigning on reproductive rights as indicating that "thousands" of women seeking abortions have been "driven" to "unregulated clinics run by untrained medical practitioners" due to the Constitutional provision on abortion access [see section 2.1 of this Response] being "disregard[ed]" and the "conservative anti-abortion attitudes" in "largely" Christian Kenya (Thomson Reuters Foundation 3 Nov. 2020).

6. Support Services

Sources indicated that there is no publicly funded support, such as for health, income, employment, and housing, for women without male support (Vice Chancellor 15 June 2021; FIDA-Kenya 21 June 2021).

According to a June 2020 Nation article, Uasin Gishu County set up a 400 million KES [C$4.6 million] fund, which will be distributed as scholarships for vocational training to "more than" 7,000 single women through Lea Mtoto Africa (Nation 29 June 2020), a community organization that "empower[s]" vulnerable women and children (Lea Mtoto Africa n.d.). Another article by Nation reports that Future Bora, an initiative funded by the World Bank and implemented by the Ministry of ICT, Innovation and Youth Affairs, is providing 40 million KES [C$ 460,746] to three organizations managing self-employment projects for women heads of household (Nation 27 Oct. 2020). Information on the implementation of either initiative could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

6.1 Nairobi

According to the website of the Single Mothers Association of Kenya (SMAK), a community organization serving the health and education needs of women and youth in Nairobi's Eastlands and western Kenya (SMAK n.d.a), SMAK provides vocational training, as well as courses on tailoring, catering, metalwork and computer skills (SMAK n.d.b).

According to their 2020AnnualReport, FIDA-Kenya launched three virtual justice centres in 2020, including one in Nairobi on 17 August, to provide access to online court, mediation, and psychosocial support sessions to their clients, who are women in poverty lacking the means to access the internet, during the COVID-19 pandemic (FIDA-Kenya 2021b, 22-23). Since the launch of the virtual centres in Kisumu, Mombasa, and Nairobi, FIDA-Kenya reports that they have hosted 99 court sessions, 13 mediation sessions and 20 psychosocial support sessions (FIDA-Kenya 2021b, 23).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] Kenya's Women's Empowerment Index (WEI) was developed by the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) in collaboration with UNICEF and the UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, ii).

[2] The WEI considers "women in union" to be "empowered," when they score a total of 80 percent in the following five indicators: "(a) [a]ttitudes toward wife-beating, (b) [h]uman and social resources, (c) [h]ousehold decision-making, (d) [c]ontrol over sexual relations, and (e) [e]conomic domain"; "women not in union" are considered "empowered" when scoring a total of 80 percent in the following three indicators: "(a) [e]conomic, (b) [h]uman and social resources, and (c) [a]ttitudes towards wife-beating" (KNBS of Kenya, UN Women and UNICEF July 2020, iv).

[3] Data collection for the Kenyan 2021 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) is "[o]ngoing," but survey results are not available [as of May 2021] (ICF International [2021]). The 2014 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) was implemented by the KNBS, in partnership with other Kenyan government organizations, with assistance from ICF International, an organization that manages the DHS Program, a US Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded project that implements DHS worldwide (ICF International and KNBS of Kenya Dec. 2015, ii).

[4] The American Bar Association (ABA)'s International Model Project for Women's Rights (IMPOWR) is a database of national laws that implement the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (ABA 14 Feb. 2013).

[5] Kenya Land Alliance (KLA) is an NGO that advocates for equitable land laws and policies (KLA n.d.).

[6] Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA)-Kenya is a women's rights organization in Kenya that offers free legal aid (FIDA-Kenya n.d.).

[7] The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) is an organization that aims to "empower women and girls, advance gender equity, promote social inclusion and fight poverty globally" (ICRW and KAM 2020, iii-iv). The Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM) is a policy advocacy group that represents "industrialists" in Kenya (KAM n.d.).

References

The American Bar Association (ABA). 14 February 2013. "IMPOWR: International Model Project for Women's Rights." World Justice Project guest post. [Accessed 8 June 2021]

Centre for Rights Education and Awareness (CREAW). 2019. Empowering Grassroots Women to Amplify Their Voices. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Centre for Rights Education and Awareness (CREAW). N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 4 June 2021]

CIO East Africa. 1 September 2020. "More Single Women Warming Up to Affordable Homes than Single Men." [Accessed 26 May 2021]

CIO East Africa. N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 21 June 2021]

Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA)-Kenya, Kenya. 21 June 2021. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA)-Kenya. 2021a. National Shadow Report on Women Land Rights. [Accessed 28 May 2021]

Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA)-Kenya. 2021b. Justice and Resilience Within a Pandemic: Experiences from the Frontlines. 2020 Annual Report. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Federación Internacional de Abogadas (FIDA)-Kenya. N.d. "Our History." [Accessed 7 June 2021]

Human Rights Watch (HRW). 25 June 2020a. Audrey Kawire Wabwire. "Interview: The Case for an Equal Split in Kenya." [Accessed 27 May 2021]

Human Rights Watch (HRW). 25 June 2020b. "Once You Get Out, You Lose Everything": Women and Matrimonial Property Rights in Kenya. [Accessed 28 May 2021]

Human Rights Watch (HRW). 7 March 2020. Juliana Nnoko-Mewanu and Najma Abdi. "Securing Women’s Property Rights in Kenya." [Accessed 27 May 2021]

ICF International. [2021]. "Kenya: Standard DHS, 2021." The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program. [Accessed 31 May 2021]

ICF International and Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), Kenya. December 2015. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2014. [Accessed 12 May 2021]

International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM). 2020. Cleopatra Mugyenyi, et al. Women in Manufacturing: Mainstreaming Gender and Inclusion. [Accessed 29 June 2021]

Kenya. 2014. The Marriage Act, 2014. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Kenya. 2013. Matrimonial Property Act. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Kenya. 2012. The Land Registration Act, 2012. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Kenya. 2010. The Constitution of Kenya. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Kenya. 2007 (amended 2008). Employment Act. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Kenya. 1972 (amended 1990). Law of Succession Act. [Accessed 26 May 2021]

Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM). N.d. "About KAM." [Accessed 6 July 2021]

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Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Academic Model Providing Access to Healthcare Kenya; African Population and Health Research Center; assistant professor at a university in Canada who studies gender in Africa; Centre for Rights Education and Awareness; Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) Kenya; EngenderHealth; Human Rights House Foundation; Joyful Women Organization; Kenya – Human Rights Commission; lawyers in Kenya (3); professor of political sciences at a university in Canada who studies African politics and sexuality; Single Mothers Association of Kenya.

Internet sites, including: 28 Too Many; Amnesty International; Australia – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; BBC; Belgium – Commissariat général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides; Bertelsmann Stiftung; Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; The Brookings Institution; Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions; Centre for Rights Education and Awareness; CNN; Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) Kenya; Denmark – Danish Immigration Service; ecoi.net; EU – European Asylum Support Office; Fédération internationale pour les droits humains; France – Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides; Freedom House; Gay and Lesbian Coalition of Kenya; The Guardian; International Crisis Group; Kenya Red Cross Society; Kenya – Human Rights Commission, National Bureau of Statistics, National Gender Equality Commission, National Land Commission; Médecins sans frontières; Minority Rights Group International; Mondo Times; Nairobi News; Netherlands – Ministry of Foreign Affairs; The New Humanitarian; New Security Beat; Norway – Landinfo; Organisation suisse d'aide aux réfugiés; Oxfam; Radio France international; Reporters sans frontières; Trade Law Centre; Trading Economics; Transparency International; UK – Home Office; UN – Food and Agriculture Organization, International Labour Organization, Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Refworld, UNDP, UNHCR, WHO; US – Library of Congress, Overseas Security Advisory Council; World Bank; World Resources Institute.

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