Daten zur Verbreitung von FGM werden regelmäßig in größer angelegten Umfragen in Entwicklungsländern abgefragt, hauptsächlich mittels der von der U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) finanzierten Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) und der Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) des UNO-Kinderhilfswerks UNICEF. Die aktuellsten Berichte zu Ägypten, das Egypt Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2014 und das Egyptian Health Issues Survey (EHIS) 2015, enthalten Daten aus den Jahren 2014 und 2015.

Verbreitung

FGM sei in Ägypten weit verbreitet. 87 Prozent aller Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren seien den Daten aus dem EHIS 2015[1] zufolge beschnitten. Die Ergebnisse der Umfrage würden jedoch darauf hinweisen, dass das Festhalten an der Praxis unter jüngeren Frauen rückläufig sein könnte. Beispielsweise seien die Raten bei Frauen unter 25 Jahren (81,6 Prozent bei den 20- bis 24-Jährigen) geringer als in der Altersgruppe der 25- bis 49-Jährigen (89,2 bis 97,1 Prozent). (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 103, S. 104, Tabelle 8.1)

Im Vergleich mit den Daten aus dem EDHS (Egypt Demographic and Health Survey) von 2008 zeige sich ein moderater Rückgang der Raten bei den Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren (87,2 Prozent gegenüber 91,1 Prozent) und in größerem Ausmaß bei den 15- bis 19-Jährigen, wo ein Rückgang um 11 Prozentpunkte verzeichnet worden sei, wobei in dieser Altersgruppe noch einige Frauen beschnitten werden könnten. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 104, Tabelle 8.1; Ministry of Health, März 2009, S. 197, Tabelle 15.1)

Weniger als acht von zehn Frauen in städtischen Gebieten (77,4 Prozent) seien von einer Genitalverstümmelung betroffen, während dies bei neun von zehn Frauen in ländlichen Gebieten (92,6 Prozent) der Fall sei. In den städtischen Gouvernements seien 74,5 Prozent der Frauen von FGM betroffen und in den drei in der Umfrage berücksichtigten Frontier Gouvernements (Red Sea, New Valley, Matroh) 74,7 Prozent, während in Unterägypten 86,9 und in Oberägypten 92,1 Prozent der Frauen betroffen seien. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 105, S. 104, Tabelle 8.1)

Folgende von der in England und Wales registrierten auf den Kampf gegen FGM spezialisierten Hilfsorganisation 28 Too Many erstellte Grafik auf Grundlage des EIHS 2015 zeigt die Verbreitung von FGM in Ägypten (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 1):

[Bild entfernt]

Alter bei Durchführung des Eingriffs und Formen von FGM

Die Hälfte der Frauen (50,8 Prozent) zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren sei bei Durchführung der Genitalverstümmelung zwischen sieben und zehn Jahren alt gewesen. Fast alle dieser Frauen seien vor Erreichen des 15. Lebensjahres dem Eingriff unterzogen worden. Traditionell würden in Ägypten Mädchen kurz vor oder in der Pubertät beschnitten. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 105, Tabelle 8.2)

Nur 14 Prozent der Mädchen zwischen einem und 14 Jahren seien zum Zeitpunkt der Umfrage von FGM betroffen gewesen. Dieser vergleichsweise geringe Anteil stehe damit in Zusammenhang, dass nur sehr wenige Mädchen unter neun Jahren beschnitten würden. Dieser Anteil steige mit dem Alter der Mädchen jedoch rasch an und betrage bei den 13- bis 14-Jährigen über die Hälfte (55,2 Prozent). (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 106, Tabelle 8.4)

Insgesamt betrage das Medianalter der Mädchen beim Eingriff 9,1 Jahre. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 107)

Die Mütter von nicht beschnittenen Mädchen zwischen einem und 14 Jahren seien im Rahmen der Umfrage gefragt worden, ob in Zukunft eine Beschneidung der Tochter angedacht sei. Dies habe ergeben, dass mehr als die Hälfte aller Mädchen zwischen einem und 14 Jahren (54,9 Prozent) letztendlich möglicherweise von FGM betroffen würden. Diese Rate sei zwar geringer als die Rate der 15- bis 19-Jährigen (69,6 Prozent), weise jedoch darauf hin, dass in den folgenden 15 Jahren die Mehrheit der Mädchen weiterhin einer Genitalverstümmelung unterzogen würde, sollten keine Informations- und Bildungskampagnen erfolgen. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 108; S. 104, Tabelle 8.1 und 8.7)

Im EHIS 2015 und DHS 2014 sind keine Daten zu Formen der FGM, die in Ägypten angewendet würden, enthalten. Dem Bevölkerungsprogramm der Vereinten Nationen (UNFPA) zufolge seien jedoch Klitoridektomie und Exzision (Typ I und Typ II) am weitesten verbreitet (UNFPA, 2. Oktober 2019). 28 Too Many verweist auf weitere Quellen, die berichten würden, dass im Allgemeinen Typ I und Typ II praktiziert würden. (28 Too Many, April 2017, S. 48; vgl. Tag-Eldin et al., 2008; vgl. RFI, 9. Dezember 2019)

FGM im medizinischen Umfeld

ÄrztInnen oder andere MitarbeiterInnen im Gesundheitswesen hätten dem EHIS 2015 zufolge die Mehrheit der Eingriffe an jungen Mädchen durchgeführt, während 20,4 Prozent von „dayas“ (traditionelle GeburtshelferInnen) durchgeführt worden seien. Medizinisches Personal, vorwiegend ÄrztInnen, hätten somit „dayas“ und andere traditionelle BeschneiderInnen großteils abgelöst. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 107, Tabelle 8.6; vgl. UNFPA, 2. Oktober 2019)

Haltung zu FGM

53,9 Prozent der Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren seien für eine Beibehaltung von FGM, während 37,5 Prozent für ein Ende der Praxis seien. Der Rest habe angegeben, sich nicht sicher zu sein. 58,5 der Männer seien für eine Beibehaltung und 27,9 Prozent für ein Ende der Praxis. Männer hätten daher eher als Frauen Überzeugungen und Haltungen, die FGM unterstützen würden. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 109 – 110, Tabellen 8.9.1 und 8.9.2)

 

Der Vergleich der Daten aus den Jahren 2015 und 2008 ergebe, dass der Anteil der Frauen und Männer, die für eine Beibehaltung von FGM seien, in den beiden Umfragen fast ident gewesen sei. (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 112; vgl. Ministry of Health, März 2009, S. 202 - 203, Tabellen 15.8.1 und 15.8.2)

Nationale Gesetzgebung

Die ägyptische Verfassung von 2014 nennt FGM nicht explizit, enthalte laut 28 Too Many aber einige Vorschriften, die zum Schutz von Frauen und Mädchen vor dieser Praxis relevant seien. (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 2)

In Artikel 11 verpflichtet sich der Staat zur Herstellung von Gleichheit zwischen Frauen und Männern bei allen zivilen, politischen, wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Rechten. Unter anderem verpflichtet sich der Staat zum Schutz von Frauen vor Gewalt. Artikel 51 enthält Bestimmungen zur Würde von Personen und Artikel 52 stuft alle Formen der Folter als Verbrechen ein. Laut Artikel 60 ist der Körper des Menschen unantastbar. Jeder Angriff, Schändung oder Verstümmelung des Körpers wird als Verbrechen eingestuft. Artikel 80 enthält Bestimmungen zu den Rechten von Kindern. Unter anderem verpflichtet sich der Staat dazu, für Kinder zu sorgen und sie von allen Formen der Gewalt, Missbrauch, Misshandlung und wirtschaftlicher und sexueller Ausbeutung zu schützen. (Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 18. Jänner 2014, Artikel 11, 51, 52, 60, 80; vgl. 28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 2–3)

Konkrete gesetzliche Bestimmungen

Der Organisation 28 Too Many zufolge sei der Prozess zur Entwicklung eines FGM-Gesetzes langwierig und komplex gewesen. Im Jahr 2008 sei mittels Abänderungen des Kindergesetzes[2] (Law No. 12 of 1996) und des Strafgesetzbuchs[3] (Act No. 58 of 1937) eine Gesetzgebung zu FGM verabschiedet worden. Im September 2016 seien die im Strafgesetzbuch vorgesehenen Strafen zudem verschärft worden. (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 4; vgl. Government of Egypt, 21. August 2019, S. 14)

Artikel 242-bis definiere FGM als „Maßnahmen zur weiblichen Genitalverstümmelung mittels der Entfernung der äußeren weiblichen Geschlechtsorgane, teilweise oder gesamt, oder mittels Verletzung dieser Organe ohne medizinische Rechtfertigung.“ Das Gesetz definiere jedoch nicht die Bedeutung von „medizinischer Rechtfertigung“.

Artikel 242-bis stelle die Ausübung von FGM unter Strafe und Artikel 242-bis(A) stelle das „Ersuchen“ um FGM unter Strafe. Es werde jedoch kein Bezug auf Beihilfe und Begünstigung der Praxis genommen. Zudem werde im Gesetz nicht speziell auf Unterlassung einer Anzeige eingegangen.

Artikel 25 des Strafprozessrechts von 1950 zufolge seien Personen, die von einem Verbrechen erfahren, verpflichtet, es den Behörden zu melden.

Das Kindergesetz von 1996 verbiete zusätzlich FGM von Kindern unter 18 Jahren. Artikel 7-bis sehe vor, dass „der Staat das Recht des Kindes auf ein passendes, gesundes und sauberes Umfeld unter allen Gegebenheiten sicherstelle und alle effektiven Maßnahmen ergreife, um für die Gesundheit des Kindes schädliche Praktiken zu beseitigen“. Artikel 7-bis(a) zufolge sei es zudem Personen, die die Verantwortung über ein Kind hätten, verboten, das Kind unrechtmäßiger körperlicher Misshandlung oder schädlichen Praktiken auszusetzen. (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 4)

Artikel 242-bis sehe für die Durchführung von FGM eine fünf- bis siebenjährige Haftstrafe vor. Sollte die Durchführung von FGM zu dauerhafter Behinderung oder zum Tod führen, werde die Bestrafung auf „schwere“ Inhaftierung zwischen drei und 15 Jahren erhöht. Artikel 242-bis(A) sehe eine ein- bis dreijährige Haftstrafe für das Beauftragen von FGM vor, wenn diese dann durchgeführt werde. Artikel 96 des Kindergesetzes sehe eine Haftstrafe von mindestens sechs Monaten und/oder eine Geldstrafe zwischen 2.000 EGP und 5.000 EGP vor, wenn ein Kind dem Risiko einer FGM ausgesetzt werde. Artikel 116 sehe eine Verdoppelung der Mindeststrafe unter anderem vor, wenn das Verbrechen von einem Elternteil oder einem Vormund des Kindes begangen werde. (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 4: vgl. HRW, 12. Jänner 2017)

Im Juli 2019 habe Dar al-Iftaa, eine Behörde die für die Verkündigung islamischer Fatwas zuständig sei, FGM in der gegenwärtigen Form als Angriff auf den Körper von Frauen eingestuft. FGM sei daher verboten und nach islamischem Recht nicht erlaubt. (USDOS, 11. März 2020, Section 6)

Umsetzung der Gesetze

Mehrere Quellen berichten, dass das Strafgesetz bezüglich FGM nur unzulänglich umgesetzt werde (Freedom House, 4. März 2020; DFAT, 19. Mai 2017; HRW, 14. Jänner 2020; USDOS, 11. März 2020, Section 6). Freedom House spricht von mangelnder Umsetzung, gesellschaftlichem Widerstand, missbräuchlicher Handhabung durch die Polizei und einem Mangel an adäquatem Zeugenschutz als Faktoren, die Opfer davon abhalten würden, Verstöße wie häusliche Gewalt, sexuelle Belästigung und Beschneidungen von Frauen zur Anzeige zu bringen (Freedom House, 4. März 2020). FGM sei ein besonderer Straftatbestand, da er in gegenseitigem Einverständnis zwischen der Familie und der Person, die den Eingriff durchführe, erfolge, was eine Anzeige und Strafverfolgung erschwere (Al Masry Al Youm, 14. Juni 2017). Oft komme es lediglich dann zu einer Strafverfolgung, wenn Mädchen an den Folgen des Eingriffs sterben (DFAT, 19. Mai 2017; The Guardian, 1. September 2016). Im Jänner 2017 berichtet die Menschenrechtsorganisation Human Rights Watch (HRW), dass es seit der ersten Aufnahme ins Strafgesetzbuch 2008 zu einer Verurteilung in einem Fall weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung gekommen sei (HRW, 12. Jänner 2017). Im Mai 2017 habe eine ägyptische Zeitung berichtet, dass seit der Verschärfung des Gesetzes im August 2016 in drei Fällen von FGM ermittelt und diese Fälle an die Strafverfolgungsbehörden übergeben worden seien (HRW, 18. Jänner 2018). Das ägyptische Nachrichtenportal Akhbar Al Youm berichtet von drei im Zeitraum 2008 bis zur Gesetzesverschärfung 2016 an Gerichte verwiesene Fälle weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung. Seit der Gesetzesverschärfung seien 2016 bis 2017 sechs Fälle im Zusammenhang mit FGM gerichtlich verhandelt worden (Akhbar Al Youm, 2. Februar 2018). Laut der ägyptischen Nichtregierungsorganisation Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights (EIPR) sehe das Gesetz gegen weibliche Genitalverstümmelung keine für die Umsetzung des Gesetzes notwendige Mechanismen vor. Auch die novellierte Fassung von 2016 enthalte keine Maßnahmen, die Anzeigen von FGM erleichtern würden. Strengere Strafen für Familienmitglieder würden im Gegenteil dazu führen, dass FGM selbst in Fällen, wo es zu Komplikationen oder sogar zum Tod beim Eingriff komme, weniger zur Anzeige gebracht werde. Die Leiter medizinischer Einrichtungen und Krankenhäuser würden sich nicht strafbar machen, wenn sie von Eingriffen dieser Art in ihren Einrichtungen gewusst und sie trotzdem nicht zur Anzeige gebracht hätten. (EIPR, 15. Oktober 2016)

Laut 28 Too Many scheine es, dass in den vergangenen Jahren nur sehr wenige strafrechtliche Verfahren zu FGM geführt worden. Die Quelle nennt zwei „high-profile“-Fälle die in der Öffentlichkeit und in den Medien behandelt worden seien. Die erwähnten Fälle sind im Folgenden angeführt.

Im Jänner 2015 sei es zum ersten Mal zu einer Verurteilung eines Arztes gekommen, der einen FGM-Eingriff vorgenommen habe, im Zuge dessen ein 13-jähriges Mädchen verstorben sei (BBC, 29. Juli 2016; The Guardian, 1. September 2016). Der Arzt sei jedoch vorerst einer Festnahme entgangen und habe Berichten zufolge weiterhin seinen Beruf ausgeübt (USDOS, 3. März 2017, Section 6; vgl. The Guardian, 3. Februar 2020). Erst eine national und international geführte Kampagne habe ihn dazu bewegt, sich der Festnahme zu fügen (BBC, 29. Juli 2016). Nach drei Monaten Haft sei der Arzt jedoch wieder entlassen worden, nachdem er mit der Familie des Mädchens verhandelt habe (The Guardian, 1. September 2016). Laut einem ägyptischen Richter schiebe das Gesetz der Möglichkeit privater Mediation keinen Riegel vor. Familien, die ein Mädchen zu einem FGM-Eingriff begleiten würden, würden dies nicht öffentlich machen, da sie selbst mit einer Haftstrafe belegt werden könnten (The Guardian, 1. September 2016). Im Mai 2016 sei ein 17-jähriges Mädchen nach einem in einer Privatklinik in Suez vorgenommenen FGM-Eingriff gestorben, woraufhin vier Personen angeklagt worden seien (AI, 22. Februar 2017; USDOS, 3. März 2017, Section 6). Unter den wegen Körperverletzung mit Todesfolge und weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung angeklagten Personen sei die Mutter des Mädchens sowie medizinisches Personal gewesen (AI, 22. Februar 2017). Im Dezember 2016 habe das Strafgericht von Suez den Arzt, der den Eingriff durchgeführt habe, zu einer Haftstrafe von fünf Jahren und einer Geldstrafe von 50.000 Ägyptischen Pfund (etwa 2.294 Euro, Anm. ACCORD) verurteilt (USDOS, 3. März 2017, Section 6). Die Mutter und zwei weitere Angeklagte seien zu einer einjährigen Bewährungsstrafe und einer Geldstrafe von 5.000 Ägyptischen Pfund (etwa 231 Euro, Anm. ACCORD) verurteilt worden (USDOS, 3. März 2017, Section 6). Im Jahr 2016 seien einem Bericht von UNFPA und UNICEF zufolge zwei Fälle vor Gericht gebracht worden und sechs Verurteilungen erfolgt. (UNFPA/UNICEF, Juli 2017, S. 30)

Im Februar 2020 sei ein Arzt verhaftet worden, nachdem ein 12-jähriges Mädchen, bei dem er eine Genitalverstümmelung durchgeführt habe, in einer Privatklinik in Manfalout gestorben sei. Einem Rechtsanwalt und Aktivisten zufolge würden Richter das Gesetz nicht anwenden, da sie „von einer Kultur beeinflusst seien, die FGM nicht als Verbrechen wahrnehme“. Die ermittelnden PolizistInnen und BeamtInnen würden sich dem Anwalt zufolge nicht um FGM kümmern. (The Guardian, 3. Februar 2020)

RFI berichtet ebenfalls über den Fall in der Klinik in Manfalout und erwähnt zudem, dass trotz eines gesetzlichen Verbots von FGM ÄrztInnen nur selten strafrechtlich verfolgt würden. In Ismailia habe etwa ein Richter einen Arzt zu einer einjährigen Haftstrafe verurteilt, diese aber nicht vollstreckt. (RFI, 1. Februar 2020)

Mit dem Thema FGM befasste Organisationen

28 Too Many erwähnt in seinem Überblick zu FGM in Ägypten die NGOs Coalition against FGM/C, die 2009 mit ihrer Arbeit begonnen und ein Expertennetzwerk von 120 Organisationen eingerichtet habe. Mittels der im Jahr 2011 gestarteten Kamla-Kampagne („vollständig“) setze sich die Koalition für ein Ende von FGM ein. (28 Too Many, April 2017, S. 77, vgl. Egypt Independent, 12. Juni 2013)

Die Facebook-Seite der Organisation findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      NGOs coalition against FGM/C: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum
https://www.facebook.com/NGOs.coalition.against.FGM/

 Die Initiative Bint El-Nile (Daughter of the Nile) sei von Asmaa Dabees gegründet worden und setze sich 2012 für ein Ende der Gewalt gegen Frauen im Gouvernement El-Biheirah ein, unter anderem gegen FGM (OMCT, 10. Oktober 2019, FRIDA, ohne Datum). Es konnten keine Kontaktdaten dieser Initiative gefunden werden.

Die Assiut Childhood and Development Association (ACDA) führe ebenfalls Bewusstseinsbildung für ein Ende von FGM durch (UNICEF, 6. Februar 2019, vgl. ACDA, August 2016, S. 3-4).

Kontaktdaten der Organisation finden sich unter folgendem Link:

·      arab.org: Assiut Childhood and Development Association, ohne Datum
https://arab.org/directory/assiut-childhood-and-development-association/

 Das deutsche Goethe-Institut veröffentlicht auf seiner Website eine interaktive Karte zu Organisationen in Oberägypten, die sich mit dem Thema Gender beschäftigen. Mittels Klick auf die einzelnen Ortschaften können Listen zu den dort tätigen Organisationen abgerufen werden. Diese Listen wiederum enthalten Links zu detaillierteren Informationen zu den verschiedenen Organisationen. Bei einigen gelisteten Organisationen findet das Thema FGM explizit Erwähnung:

·      Goethe-Institut: Female Empowerment & Gender; Eine digitale Karte zu Gender in Oberägypten, ohne Datum
https://www.goethe.de/ins/eg/de/kul/sup/trp/par/gen.html

Regierungsbehörden und die Zivilgesellschaft seien unter dem Dach des Egyptian National Committee for the Elimination of FGM organisiert, das vom National Council for Women und National Council for Childhood and Motherhood geleitet werde (Plan International, 31. Jänner 2020).

Auf der Website des National Council for Childhood and Motherhood findet sich eine Liste von NGO-Partnern, die gegenwärtig aktualisiert werde. Es sind jedoch keine Informationen angeführt, ob sich die jeweiligen Organisationen auch mit dem Thema FGM befassen:

·      NCCM - National Council for Childhood and Motherhood: Related Links; NGOs, ohne Datum (a)
http://www.nccm-egypt.org/e3/e1591/e2693/index_eng.html

Die Kontaktdaten des National Council for Childhood and Motherhood und des National Council for Women finden sich unter folgenden Links:

·      NCCM - National Council for Childhood and Motherhood: Contact Us, ohne Datum (b)
http://www.nccm-egypt.org/e61/index_eng.html

·      NCW - National Council for Women: Website, ohne Datum (a)
http://ncw.gov.eg/ar/%d8%a5%d8%aa%d8%b5%d9%84-%d8%a8%d9%86%d8%a7/

Die Facebook-Seite des National Council for Women findet sich unter folgendem Link:

·      NCW - National Council for Women: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum (b)
https://www.facebook.com/ncwegyptpage

Weitere Informationen

Folgende Dokumente enthalten weitere allgemeine Informationen zu FGM in Ägypten:

 

·      28 Too Many: Country Profile: FGM in Egypt, April 2017
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Research%20and%20Resources/Egypt/egypt_country_profile_v2_(november_2017)_(1).pdf

·      ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation: Anfragebeantwortung zu Ägypten: Bedeutung der Genitalverstümmelung in der ägyptischen Gesellschaft, Verbreitung, Alter bei Durchführung; Vorkommen in der Provinz Scharqiya, Zwang/Druck vonseiten der Großfamilie oder lokaler Gemeinschaften auf die Eltern eines Mädchens (7 Jahre alt); Schutz vor Genitalverstümmelung durch staatliche Behörden, insbesondere bei Bedrohung durch Familienangehörige, strafrechtliche Verfolgung [a-10482], 22. März 2018
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1438089.html

·      Terre Des Femmes: FGM in Afrika; Ägypten, Dezember 2019
https://www.frauenrechte.de/unsere-arbeit/themen/weibliche-genitalverstuemmelung/unser-engagement/aktivitaeten/genitalverstuemmelung-in-afrika/fgm-in-afrika/1424-aegypten

·      UNDP - United Nations Development Programme: Combatting Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt, 2015
https://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/fgminegypt/index.html

·      UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund: Female Genital Mutilation Dashboard (FGM) – Egypt, ohne Datum
https://www.unfpa.org/data/fgm/EG

·      UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund: Female Genital Mutilation: A New Generation Calls for Ending an Old Practice, 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FGM-a-new-generation-calls-for-ending-an-old-practice_2020.pdf

·      UNICEF – UN Children's Fund: Egypt; Statistical Profile on Female Genital Mutilation, Jänner 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Egypt/FGM_EGY.pdf

Quellen: (Zugriff auf alle Quellen am 3. April 2020)

·      28 Too Many: Country Profile: FGM in Egypt, April 2017
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Research%20and%20Resources/Egypt/egypt_country_profile_v2_(november_2017)_(1).pdf

·      28 Too Many: Egypt: The Law And FGM; June 2018, Juni 2018
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Law%20Reports/egypt_law_report_v1_(june_2018).pdf

·      ACCORD – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation: Anfragebeantwortung zu Ägypten: Bedeutung der Genitalverstümmelung in der ägyptischen Gesellschaft, Verbreitung, Alter bei Durchführung; Vorkommen in der Provinz Scharqiya, Zwang/Druck vonseiten der Großfamilie oder lokaler Gemeinschaften auf die Eltern eines Mädchens (7 Jahre alt); Schutz vor Genitalverstümmelung durch staatliche Behörden, insbesondere bei Bedrohung durch Familienangehörige, strafrechtliche Verfolgung [a-10482], 22. März 2018
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1438089.html

·      ACDA - Assiut Childhood and Development Association: Autobiography of Assiut Childhood and Development Association, August 2016
https://acdaegypt.com/en/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/ACDA-CV-english.pdf

·      AI – Amnesty International: Amnesty International Report 2016/17 - The State of the World's Human Rights - Egypt, 22. Februar 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1393970.html

·      Akhbar Al Youm: al-barnamij al-qawmi li-khitan al-inath yu^clin kashf hisabihi ba^cd 15 ^caman min al-^caml [Das Nationale Programm für die Bekämpfung von FGM legt nach 15 Jahren Arbeit die Bilanz seiner Arbeit vor], 2. Februar 2018
https://akhbarelyom.com/news/newdetails/2618090/1/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AC-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A-%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AB-%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%86-%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-15-%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7.html

·      Al Masry Al Youm: al-qawmi li-munahadhat al-khitan yu^clin ^can mubadarat tibbiya wa qanuniya wa i^clamiya wa diniya li-muhasara al-jarima [Nationales Programm gegen weibliche Beschneidung informiert über medizinische, gesetzliche, mediale und religiöse Initiativen zur Eindämmung der Straftat], 14. Juni 2017
http://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/1148603

·      arab.org: Assiut Childhood and Development Association, ohne Datum
https://arab.org/directory/assiut-childhood-and-development-association/

·      BBC: Arrest of Egypt FGM doctor Raslan Fadl welcomed, 29. Juli 2016
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36925432

·      Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, in Kraft getreten am 18. Jänner 2014 (verfügbar auf Constitute Project)
https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf

·      DFAT – Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Country Information Report Egypt, 19. Mai 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1419298/4792_1512556314_country-information-report-egypt.pdf

·      Egypt Independent: NGOs prepare campaign against FGM, 12. Juni 2013
https://egyptindependent.com/ngos-prepare-campaign-against-fgm/

·      EIPR – Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights: Amendment to Female Circumcision/ Female Genital Cutting (FGC) A positive development lacking enforcement mechanisms, 15. Oktober 2016
https://eipr.org/en/press/2016/10/amendment-female-circumcision-female-genital-cutting-fgc-positive-development-lacking

·      Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2020 - Egypt, 4. März 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2025912.html

·      FRIDA - Flexibility Resources Inclusivity Diversity Action: Daughter of the Nile, ohne Datum
https://youngfeministfund.org/grantees/daughter-of-the-nile/

·      Goethe-Institut: Female Empowerment & Gender; Eine digitale Karte zu Gender in Oberägypten, ohne Datum
https://www.goethe.de/ins/eg/de/kul/sup/trp/par/gen.html

·      Government of Egypt: National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21; Egypt [A/HRC/WG.6/34/EGY/1], 21. August 2019
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2017471/A_HRC_WG.6_34_EGY_1_E.pdf

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2017 - Egypt, 12. Jänner 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1049872.html

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2018 - Egypt, 18. Jänner 2018
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1422452.html

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2020 - Egypt, 14. Jänner 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2022686.html

·      ILO – International Labour Organization: NATLEX Database of national labour, social security and related human rights legislation, Egypt, Act No. 58 of 1937, promulgating the Penal Code, ohne Datum
http://www.ilo.ch/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=57560

·      ILO – International Labour Organization: NATLEX Database of national labour, social security and related human rights legislation, Egypt, Act No. 12 of 1996 to promulgate the Child Act, ohne Datum
http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=45791

·      Ministry of Health: Egypt Demographic and Health Survey 2008, März 2009
https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR220/FR220.pdf

·      Ministry of Health and Population: Egypt Demographic and Health Survey 2014, Mai 2015
https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR302/FR302.pdf

·      Ministry of Health and Population: Egypt Health Issues Survey 2015, Oktober 2015
https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR313/FR313.pdf

·      NCCM - National Council for Childhood and Motherhood: Related Links; NGOs, ohne Datum (a)
http://www.nccm-egypt.org/e3/e1591/e2693/index_eng.html

·      NCCM - National Council for Childhood and Motherhood: Contact Us, ohne Datum (b)
http://www.nccm-egypt.org/e61/index_eng.html

·      NCW - National Council for Women: Website, ohne Datum (a)
http://ncw.gov.eg/ar/%d8%a5%d8%aa%d8%b5%d9%84-%d8%a8%d9%86%d8%a7/

·      NCW - National Council for Women: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum (b)
https://www.facebook.com/ncwegyptpage

·      NGOs coalition against FGM/C: Facebook-Profil, ohne Datum
https://www.facebook.com/NGOs.coalition.against.FGM/

·      OMCT – World Organisation Against Torture: Egypt: Ongoing detention, threats and acts of ill-treatment while in detention against Mr. Alaa Abdel Fattah and Mr. Mohamed El-Baqer [EGY 004 / 0919 / OBS 075.2], 10. Oktober 2019
https://www.omct.org/human-rights-defenders/urgent-interventions/egypt/2019/10/d25540/

·      Plan International: FGM causes death of 12-year old in Egypt, 31. Jänner 2020
https://plan-international.org/press-release/2020-01-31-fgm-causes-death-12-year-old-egypt

·      RFI – Radio France Internationale: The truth about Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt and beyond, 9. Dezember 2019
http://www.rfi.fr/en/middle-east/20191122-egypt-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-torture-middle-east-africa-stop-origins

·      RFI - Radio France Internationale: Egyptian authorities arrest parents and physician after 12-year-old dies from FGM procedure, 1. Februar 2020
http://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20200201-egyptian-authorities-arrest-parents-and-physician-after-12-year-old-dies-fgm-

·      Tag-Eldin, Mohammed A. et al: Prevalence of female genital cutting among Egyptian girls (veröffentlicht in Bulletin of the World Health Organization), 2008
http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/4/07-042093/en/

·      Terre Des Femmes: FGM in Afrika; Ägypten, Dezember 2019
https://www.frauenrechte.de/unsere-arbeit/themen/weibliche-genitalverstuemmelung/unser-engagement/aktivitaeten/genitalverstuemmelung-in-afrika/fgm-in-afrika/1424-aegypten

·      The Guardian: Egypt's tougher penalties for FGM will have little impact, say rights groups, 1. September 2016
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/sep/01/egypts-tougher-penalties-for-fgm-will-have-little-impact-say-rights-groups

·      The Guardian: FGM doctor arrested in Egypt after girl, 12, bleeds to death, 3. Februar 2020
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/03/fgm-doctor-arrested-in-egypt-after-girl-12-bleeds-to-death

·      UNDP - United Nations Development Programme: Combatting Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt, 2015
https://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/fgminegypt/index.html

·      UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund: Female Genital Mutilation Dashboard (FGM) – Egypt, ohne Datum
https://www.unfpa.org/data/fgm/EG

·      UNFPA/UNICEF - United Nations Population Fund / United Nations Children’s Fund: UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: 2016 Annual Report of the UNFPA–UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change, Juli 2017
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/UNFPA_UNICEF_FGM_16_Report_web.pdf

·      UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund: When health workers harm: the medicalization of female genital mutilation in Egypt, 2. Oktober 2019
https://www.unfpa.org/news/when-health-workers-harm-medicalization-female-genital-mutilation-egypt

·      UNICEF: Community mobilization towards the abandonment of FGM, 6. Februar 2019
https://www.unicef.org/egypt/stories/community-mobilization-towards-abandonment-fgm

·      UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund: Female Genital Mutilation: A New Generation Calls for Ending an Old Practice, 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FGM-a-new-generation-calls-for-ending-an-old-practice_2020.pdf

·      UNICEF – UN Children's Fund: Egypt; Statistical Profile on Female Genital Mutilation, Jänner 2020
https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Egypt/FGM_EGY.pdf

·      USDOS – US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2016 - Egypt, 3. März 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1395254.html

·      USDOS – US Department of State: 2019 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Egypt, 11. März 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2026355.html

Anhang: Zugrunde liegende Originalzitate aus Quellen

·      28 Too Many: Country Profile: FGM in Egypt, April 2017
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Research%20and%20Resources/Egypt/egypt_country_profile_v2_(november_2017)_(1).pdf

„Women taking part in the EHIS 2015 and the DHS 2014 were not asked which type of FGM they or their daughters had undergone. However, other sources report that it is usually Types I and II that are practised in Egypt.“ (28 Too Many, April 2017, S. 48)

„Since it started in 2009, the NGOs Coalition against FGM/C has brought together an expert network of 120 organisations from different sectors across Egypt. It advocates for an end to FGM through its Kamla campaign*. The Kamla campaign was launched in 2011 across 11 governorates**, with support from the UNFPA, and focuses on raising awareness and supporting children and families, although it has also trained numerous doctors through the Doctors Against FGM/C programme. The Coalition receives funding from the Wallace Global Fund and promotes its activities widely through social media.“ (28 Too Many, April 2017, S. 77)

·      28 Too Many: Egypt: The Law And FGM; June 2018, Juni 2018
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Law%20Reports/egypt_law_report_v1_(june_2018).pdf

„The Egyptian Constitution (2014)1 does not explicitly mention FGM, but has several provisions that are relevant to protecting women and girls from the practice. Article 11 commits the State to achieving equality between women and men and ‘to the protection of women against all forms of violence.’ Articles 51 and 52 protect human dignity and prohibit all forms of torture respectively, and, significant to the practice of FGM, Article 60 states, ‘The human body is inviolable. Any assault, defilement or mutilation thereof is a crime punishable by law.’ Finally, Article 80 affirms the rights of the child (i.e. persons under 18 years of age) and provides, ‘The state shall care for children and protect them from all forms of violence and abuse, mistreatment and commercial and sexual exploitation.’

The main law criminalising FGM in Egypt is set out in Article 242-bis [In legal terms, ‘bis’ refers to the second version of a protocol] and Article 242-bis(A) of Law No. 58 of 1937 promulgating the Penal Code (as amended by Law No. 78 of 2016). “ (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 2 – 3)

„The development of FGM-related law in Egypt has been a lengthy and complex process (see Country Profile: FGM in Egypt at https://www.28toomany.org/egypt/). New FGM legislation was introduced in Egypt in 2008 through amendments to the Child Act (1996) and the Penal Code. In September 2016, Law No. 58 was further strengthened and penalties were increased. This main law includes the following provisions:

Article 242-bis [In legal terms, ‘bis’ refers to the second version of a protocol] defines FGM as ‘acts of female genital mutilation, by removing any of the external female genital organs, whether in part or in whole, or by inflicting any injuries to these organs without medical justification.’ The law does not, however, define what constitutes ‘medical justification’.

Article 242-bis criminalises the performance of FGM; and

Article 242-bis(A) makes it a criminal offence for anyone to ‘request’ FGM. It does not make reference to anyone aiding or abetting the practice.

The failure to report FGM, whether it has taken place, is taking place or is planned, is not specifically referred to in this law. More generally, anyone who learns of the commission of a crime in Egypt is obliged to report it to the authorities under Article 25 of the Code of Criminal Procedure Act No. 150 of 1950.

In addition to the main law, the Child Act No. 12 of 1996 (as amended by Law No 126 of 2008) prohibits FGM on children (under 18 years of age). Article 7-bis provides that ‘the State shall ensure the right of the child, in all settings, to a suitable, healthy, and clean environment and shall take all effective measures to eliminate harmful practices to his health.’ Article 7-bis(a) states further that it is prohibited for a person responsible for the care of a child ‘to intentionally expose the child to any illegitimate physical abuse or harmful practice.’ “ (28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 3)

„The penalties for violation of the law in Egypt are as follows: ▪ Article 242-bis – the performance of FGM is punishable with imprisonment for between five and seven years. ▪ Article 242-bis – where the performance of FGM results in permanent disability or death, the punishment is increased to ‘aggravated’ imprisonment for between three and fifteen years. ▪ Article 242-bis(A) – anyone who requests FGM is punishable with imprisonment from one to three years if the mutilation is carried out. In addition, under the Child Act No. 12 of 1996 (amended), penalties are set out if a child is put at risk or the FGM is perpetrated by parents or guardians of the victim: ▪ Article 96 – anyone putting a child at risk will be punished with imprisonment for a minimum of six months or a fine of between EGP2,000 and EGP5,000 (US$112–2795), or both. ▪ Article 116-bis – the minimum penalty is doubled if the crime is committed by an adult against a child, or if it is committed by one of the parents, or by one of the child’s guardians, or by people in charge of supervising or upbringing the child, or by those who have authority over the child, or by a servant to any of the above mentioned.“(28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 4–5)

„While some arrests have been made and isolated cases brought to court in Egypt, generally, implementation of the national law and its enforcement remain a challenge. Between 2007 and 2013, several girls died undergoing FGM, which led to calls for strengthened legislation and improved law enforcement. Despite this, very few prosecutions appear to have been carried out in recent years, and the following two high-profile cases remain those most widely discussed in public and the media:

Following the death of 13-year old Soheir al-Batea in June 2013, the doctor who performed the FGM, Raslan Fadl, was finally prosecuted in 2015 under Articles 238 (manslaughter) and 242-bis (prohibiting FGM) of the Penal Code. He was sentenced to two years for manslaughter and three months’ imprisonment for FGM, and his clinic was closed for one year. He was also fined EGP500 (US$286). The father, who requested the FGM, was given a three-month suspended sentence.7

In May 2016, shortly before the law was further strengthened, 17-year-old Mayar Mohamed Mousa from Suez died in a private hospital while undergoing FGM. The primary physician, nurse, anaesthetist and victim’s mother were all found guilty of FGM under various articles of the Penal Code and charged in January 2017. The doctor, anaesthetist and mother were all given one-year suspended prison sentences and fines of between EGP1,000 and EGP5,000 (US$56–279). The attending nurse, who fled the country, was given a five-year suspended sentence and an EGP50,000 (US$2,794) fine, which will be reduced if she voluntarily attends court.8, 9

The most recent report published by the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme confirms that just two cases were brought to court and six convictions made in Egypt during 2016.10 “(28 Too Many, Juni 2018, S. 5)

·      AI – Amnesty International: Amnesty International Report 2016/17 - The State of the World's Human Rights - Egypt, 22. Februar 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1393970.html

„Am 29. Mai 2016 starb ein 17-jähriges Mädchen in einer Privatklinik im Gouvernement Suez. Berichten zufolge verblutete sie, nachdem sie Opfer weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung geworden war. Vier Personen, darunter die Mutter des Mädchens und medizinisches Personal, mussten sich wegen Körperverletzung mit Todesfolge und weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung vor Gericht verantworten. “ (AI, 22. Februar 2017)

·      BBC: Arrest of Egypt FGM doctor Raslan Fadl welcomed, 29. Juli 2016
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36925432

„Campaigners have welcomed the arrest of Egypt's first doctor to have been convicted of carrying out female genital mutilation (FGM). Raslan Fadl was sentenced in January 2015 over the death of Souheir al-Bataa, a 13-year-old girl who was subjected to the illegal procedure. However, he avoided arrest and was said to have carried on working as a doctor. Domestic and international pressure apparently prompted Fadl to surrender, campaign group Equality Now said.“ (BBC, 29. Juli 2016)

·      Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, in Kraft getreten am 18. Jänner 2014 (verfügbar auf Constitute Project)
https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf

„The state commits to achieving equality between women and men in all civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution. The state commits to taking the necessary measures to ensure appropriate representation of women in the houses of parliament, in the manner specified by law. It grants women the right to hold public posts and high management posts in the state, and to appointment in judicial bodies and entities without discrimination. The state commits to the protection of women against all forms of violence, and ensures women empowerment to reconcile the duties of a woman toward her family and her work requirements. The state ensures care and protection and care for motherhood and childhood, and for breadwinning, and elderly women, and women most in need.“ (Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 18. Jänner 2014, Artikel 11)

„Article 51: Human dignity Dignity is a right for every person that may not be infringed upon. The state shall respect, guarantee and protect it.“ (Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 18. Jänner 2014, Artikel 51)

„Article 52: Torture All forms of torture are a crime with no statute of limitations“ (Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 18. Jänner 2014, Artikel 52)

„Article 60: Inviolability of the human body The human body is inviolable. Any assault, defilement or mutilation thereof is a crime punishable by law. Organ trafficking is forbidden, and no medical or scientific experiment may be performed thereon without the documented free consent of the subject, according to the established principles of the medical field as regulated by law.“ (Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 18. Jänner 2014, Artikel 60)

„Article 80: Rights of the child A child is considered to be anyone who has not reached 18 years of age. Children have the right to be named and possess identification papers, have access to free compulsory vaccinations, health and family care or an alternative, basic nutrition, safe shelter, religious education, and emotional and cognitive development. The state guarantees the rights of children who have disabilities, and ensures their rehabilitation and incorporation into society. The state shall care for children and protect them from all forms of violence, abuse, mistreatment and commercial and sexual exploitation. Every child is entitled to early education in a childhood center until the age of six. It is prohibited to employ children before they reach the age of having completed their primary education, and it is prohibited to employ them in jobs that expose them to risk. The state shall establish a judicial system for child victims and witnesses. No child may be held criminally responsible or detained except in accordance with the law and the time frame specified therein. Legal aid shall be provided to children, and they shall be detained in appropriate locations separate from adult detention centers. The state shall work to achieve children’s best interest in all measures taken with regards to them.“ (Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 18. Jänner 2014, Artikel 80)

·      DFAT – Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade: DFAT Country Information Report Egypt, 19. Mai 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1419298/4792_1512556314_country-information-report-egypt.pdf

„Female genital mutilation (FGM) has been illegal in Egypt since 2008 (Law 126/2008, amending the provisions of the Child Law). However, prosecutions under the Law are rare, and have generally been limited to cases where girls die after undergoing the procedure. FGM is a strongly held tradition in Egypt. It is widely practised throughout the country among both Muslim and Christian communities, and strong social and patriarchal pressures exist on young women and girls to undergo the procedure in order to get married. A comprehensive UNICEF study on FGM published in July 2013 found that 27.2 million Egyptian women (91 per cent) had undergone the procedure, which was conducted by a medical professional in 77 per cent of cases. A February 2016 update to the report found that there had been a noticeable decline in the percentage of girls aged 15-19 who had undergone the procedure. In June 2016, Egypt’s highest religious authorities issued a statement saying the procedure was un-Islamic and should be stopped, which followed an earlier statement to the same effect made in 2007.“ (DFAT, 19. Mai 2017, S. 21)

·      Egypt Independent: NGOs prepare campaign against FGM, 12. Juni 2013
https://egyptindependent.com/ngos-prepare-campaign-against-fgm/

„A coalition of NGOs has launched a nationwide campaign against female genital mutilation (FGM), after a botched operation resulted in the death of an Egyptian teenager on Sunday. The new Kamla campaign, which means ‚complete‘ in Arabic, will figure in governorates across Egypt under the slogan: “Our daughters are [born] complete. Why do we want them to be incomplete?” The coalition consists of 20 civil society groups working with volunteers to combat FGM and educate families across the country about the dangers of the practice and the negative impact it can have on girls’ health as well as family stability.“ (Egypt Independent, 12. Juni 2013)

·      EIPR – Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights: Amendment to Female Circumcision/ Female Genital Cutting (FGC) A positive development lacking enforcement mechanisms, 15. Oktober 2016
https://eipr.org/en/press/2016/10/amendment-female-circumcision-female-genital-cutting-fgc-positive-development-lacking

„The organizations nevertheless stress that enforcement mechanisms remain lacking and that the amended provisions still allows doctors and medical institutions to evade punishment. [...] Also notable is the complete lack of any clear enforcement mechanisms. The amendments offer no means to resolve the lack of reporting of FGC, especially in light of heavier penalties for family members, which will make them refrain from reporting FGC, even in cases of death or serious complications, where they could face additional penalties. In addition, the government did not respond to demands from the undersigned organizations to expand legal liability to include administrators of hospitals and medical institutions where FGC is performed if they are proven to have had knowledge of the crimes and did not report them. Finally, the amendments were not paired with a social campaign to familiarize the public with the law and the changes introduced and to encourage them to report clinics where FGC is performed.“ (EIPR, 15. Oktober 2016)

·      Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2020 - Egypt, 4. März 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2025912.html

„Domestic violence, sexual harassment, and female genital mutilation (FGM) are still among the most acute problems in Egyptian society. The country has adopted laws to combat these practices in recent years, and FGM is reportedly becoming less common over time. However, the effectiveness of such laws is hindered by societal resistance, poor enforcement, abuses by the police themselves, and lack of adequate protection for witnesses, all of which deter victims from contacting authorities. Spousal rape is not a crime.“ (Freedom House, 4. März 2020)

·      FRIDA - Flexibility Resources Inclusivity Diversity Action: Daughter of the Nile, ohne Datum
https://youngfeministfund.org/grantees/daughter-of-the-nile/

„Founded in 2012 in Egypt in response to the evident violence against women in its different forms in El-Biheriah governorate, and specifically sexual violence that includes child marriage, female genital mutilation and harassment, Daughter of the Nile (Bint El-Nile) aims at mobilizing women to defend their rights, and to integrate them into the public space to become active and resistant against all forms of violence and discrimination that fall upon them in the name of societal customs and traditions. The group’s objective is to build a wide feminist movement in El-Biheirah governorate to oppose all forms of violence and works on two main programs: 1) Feminist Education and Awareness Raising Program; and 2) Combating Child Marriage Program. Despite the societal pressure, customs, traditions and limited resources that have challenged our work, the group was able to raise the awareness of 200 young women and men about harassment in the rural and urban areas of El-Biheirah governorate and they consider this as their biggest achievement so far.“ (FRIDA, ohne Datum)

·      Government of Egypt: National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21; Egypt [A/HRC/WG.6/34/EGY/1], 21. August 2019
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2017471/A_HRC_WG.6_34_EGY_1_E.pdf

„Three national strategies were launched in 2015 to address the issue of violence against women: the national strategy to combat violence against women, the national strategy to combat female circumcision and the national strategy to prevent early marriage. The penalty for female circumcision envisaged in the Criminal Code has been made more severe. Perpetrators are now liable to a term of imprisonment of between 5 and 7 years, and the terms of imprisonment are harsher if the act leads to permanent impairment or death. Moreover, a new article imposes a penalty of imprisonment of between 1 and 3 years for persons who request that an act of female circumcision be performed. “ (Government of Egypt, 21. August 2019, S. 14)

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2017 - Egypt, 12. Jänner 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1049872.html

„In August, parliament passed an amendment to a law prohibiting female genital mutilation (FGM), increasing the penalties. The new law provided for prison terms of five to seven years for those who carry out FGM and up to 15 years if the procedure results in permanent disability or death. Anyone who escorts girls to undergo female genital mutilation will also face one to three years in prison. FGM is still widely practiced, and prosecutors have only obtained one conviction since the law was passed in 2008.“ (HRW, 12. Jänner 2017)

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2018 - Egypt, 18. Jänner 2018
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1422452.html

„In May, according to Al-Masry al-Youm newspaper, the Justice Ministry’s Forensic Medical Authority said that they investigated three cases of female genital mutilation (FGM) referred by prosecutors since the government amended the penal code to introduce harsher penalties in August 2016.“ (HRW, 18. Jänner 2018)

·      HRW – Human Rights Watch: World Report 2020 - Egypt, 14. Jänner 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2022686.html

„Egypt continued to stall on a law that would tackle domestic violence. UN Women group, which works for women’s empowerment, estimated that almost a third of Egyptian women experienced intimate partner physical or sexual violence in their lifetime. Despite the 2016 penal code amendments criminalizing female genital mutilation (FGM), prosecutions of perpetrators remained rare and FGM remains widely practiced throughout the country, with an estimated four out of five genital mutilations performed by doctors in professional medical environments.“ (HRW, 14. Jänner 2020)

„Despite the 2016 penal code amendments criminalizing female genital mutilation (FGM), prosecutions of perpetrators remained rare and FGM remains widely practiced throughout the country, with an estimated four out of five genital mutilations performed by doctors in professional medical environments.“ (HRW, 14. Jänner 2020)

·      Ministry of Health and Population: Egypt Health Issues Survey 2015, Oktober 2015
https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR313/FR313.pdf

„Table 8.1 confirms that the practice of female circumcision is widespread in Egypt; 87 percent of all women age 15-49 have been circumcised. However, the results also suggest that adherence to the practice may be declining among younger women. For example, while exceeding 70 percent, female circumcision rates among women under age 25 are lower than rates in the 25-49 age groups, where 89-97 percent of women have been circumcised. The rate also is lower among nevermarried than ever-married women (68 percent and 93 percent, respectively). “ (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 103, S. 104, Tabelle 8.1)

„Moreover, Figure 8.1, which compares female circumcision rates from the 2015 EHIS with the rates observed in the 2008 EDHS, shows both a modest decline in the overall rate for women age 15-49 (87 percent versus 91 percent) and more substantial declines in the two youngest age groups. The rate in the 15-19 age group at the time of the EHIS is particularly noteworthy; it is 11 percentage points lower than the rate in the same age group at the time of the 2008 EDHS. Some women in this cohort who are not yet circumcised may be circumcised in the future. However, as discussed below, few Egyptian women are circumcised after age 15“ (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 104)

„Fewer than 8 in 10 urban women are circumcised compared with more than 9 in 10 rural women. Seventy-five percent of women in the Urban Governorates and the three Frontier Governorates surveyed in the 2015 EHIS are circumcised compared with 87 percent in Lower Egypt and 92 percent in Upper Egypt. Overall, women with no education are the most likely to have been circumcised (98 percent) while the lowest circumcision rate is observed among women in the highest wealth quintile (70 percent).“ (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 105)

„Table 8.2 presents the distribution of circumcised women age 15-49 according to the age at circumcision. Half of the women age 15-49 were between seven and ten years of age at the time of circumcision, and virtually all of the women were circumcised before age 15. This reflects the fact that, in Egypt, girls are traditionally circumcised slightly before or at puberty (El-Gibaly et al. 2002). “(Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 105, Tabelle 8.2)

„Table 8.4 indicates that only 14 percent of girls age 1-14 had been circumcised at the time of the survey. This comparatively low proportion reflects the fact that very few girls under age 9 are circumcised. At that point, the proportion circumcised rises rapidly with age from 1 in 7 girls age 9-10 to more than half of girls age 13-14. Girls from rural areas, especially in Upper Egypt, are more likely than girls from other areas to have been circumcised. Looking at the place of residence, the lowest rates are observed in urban Lower Egypt (6 percent) and the Urban Governorates (8 percent). The likelihood a young girl is currently circumcised declines as the wealth quintile increases, from 23 percent in the lowest quintile to 5 percent among girls in the highest quintile. “(Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 106, Tabelle 8.4)

„A number of questions were asked about the experience of girls who were circumcised including how old the girl was when she was circumcised and about the type of person who performed the circumcision. Table 8.5 presents the distribution of the circumcised girls age 1-14 according to the age at circumcision. The age pattern suggests that it remains the norm for most girls to be circumcised around puberty. Overall, the median age at circumcision among girls is 9.1 years.“(Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 107)

„Regarding the person performing the circumcision, Table 8.6 indicates that trained medical personnel (primarily doctors) have largely replaced dayas and other traditional providers. Doctors or other health care providers performed the majority of the circumcisions among young girls (78 percent), with 20 percent performed by dayas.“ (Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 107)

„If a girl age 1-14 had not yet been circumcised, the mother or other caretaker who responded to the EHIS Child Questionnaire was asked if it was intended that the girl would be circumcised in the future. Table 8.7 combines information on the girls already circumcised with the response to the question on the intention to circumcise to obtain an estimate of the total percentage of girls who may eventually be circumcised. The results suggest that, overall, more than half of all girls age 1-14 years will eventually be circumcised. This is lower than the current circumcision rate among girls age 15-19 (70 percent). However, it indicates that, without further information, education and communication efforts, the majority of girls will continue to be circumcised over the next 15 years. “(Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 108)

„Tables 8.9.1 and 8.9.2 present information about beliefs and opinions about female circumcision among women and men, respectively. The results indicate that men are slightly more likely than women to have beliefs and attitudes supportive of female circumcision. For example, half of men age 15-49 believe female circumcision is required by religion compared to 46 percent of women. Fifty-nine percent of men agree that the practice should continue compared to 54 percent of women. With regard to the level of support for female circumcision among the opposite sex, both men and women are largely correct in their perceptions, with men somewhat more likely to accurately predict women’s attitudes. Fifty-three percent of women think that men want the practice to continue, which is 6 percentage points lower than the expressed level of support among men. On the other hand, half of men think women want female circumcision to continue, which is 4 percentage points lower than the level of support women actually express“(Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 109 – 110)

„Finally, information obtained 2015 EHIS on beliefs and attitudes among women and men can be compared to similar information obtained in the 2008 Egypt DHS in order to assess if there was any change in these indicators over the seven-year period between the surveys. The comparisons shown in Figure 8.2 indicate that there has been very little change in the belief that female circumcision is required by religion among either women or men during the period. Moreover, the proportions of women and men supporting continuation of the practice were virtually identical in the two surveys. “(Ministry of Health and Population, Oktober 2015, S. 112)

·      OMCT – World Organisation Against Torture: Egypt: Ongoing detention, threats and acts of ill-treatment while in detention against Mr. Alaa Abdel Fattah and Mr. Mohamed El-Baqer [EGY 004 / 0919 / OBS 075.2], 10. Oktober 2019
https://www.omct.org/human-rights-defenders/urgent-interventions/egypt/2019/10/d25540/

„Other human rights defenders have also been arrested, including human rights lawyer Mahienour El-Massry and Ms. Asmaa Dabees, founder of the “Daughter of the Nile”, an initiative working on violence against women in Beheira with a focus on domestic violence, female genital mutilation, and forced marriage, who were respectively arbitrarily arrested on September 22 and September 26, 2019[3].“ (OMCT, 10. Oktober 2019)

·      Plan International: FGM causes death of 12-year old in Egypt, 31. Jänner 2020
https://plan-international.org/press-release/2020-01-31-fgm-causes-death-12-year-old-egypt

„Strongly condemning the practice of FGM, Mudasser Siddiqui, Plan International Egypt Country Director, said: [...] ‚Tackling these views and changing attitudes is critical to eliminating FGM. We are working hard to achieve this in the communities where we work, in orchestrated efforts with all other government and civil society actors under the umbrella of the Egyptian National Committee for the elimination of FGM, led by the National Council for Women and the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood.‘“ (Plan International, 31. Jänner 2020)

·      RFI – Radio France Internationale: The truth about Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt and beyond, 9. Dezember 2019
http://www.rfi.fr/en/middle-east/20191122-egypt-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-torture-middle-east-africa-stop-origins

„A paper published in 1985 by Leonard J. Kouba and Judith Muasher outlines these four types.

The first, called Mild Sunna, is the pricking of the tip of the clitoris with a sharp instrument, like a pin, which leaves little to no damage.

The second, called Modified Sunna, is the partial or total excision, or cutting of the body of the clitoris.

The third, called Clitoridectomy, is the removal of part or all of the clitoris as well as part or all of the labia.

The fourth type is called infibulation, or pharaonic circumcision, which consists of the excision or removal of the clitoris plus the excision of the labia minora as well as the inner walls of the labia majora. The raw edges of the vulva are then sewn together. When this heals it forms a wall over the vaginal opening. A small sliver of wood, or similar object, is inserted into the vagina to keep open a small hole so urine and menstrual fluid can pass.

Most girls in Egypt undergo FGM type 2 or 3 between the ages of 4 and 12.“ (RFI, 9. Dezember 2019)

·      RFI - Radio France Internationale: Egyptian authorities arrest parents and physician after 12-year-old dies from FGM procedure, 1. Februar 2020
http://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20200201-egyptian-authorities-arrest-parents-and-physician-after-12-year-old-dies-fgm-

„Despite laws against FGM, doctors are rarely prosecuted. In one case in Ismailia the judge sentenced a physician to a year in prison but never imposed it. “ (RFI, 1. Februar 2020)

·      Tag-Eldin, Mohammed A. et al: Prevalence of female genital cutting among Egyptian girls (veröffentlicht in Bulletin of the World Health Organization), 2008
http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/4/07-042093/en/

„FGC has remained a common practice in the countries where it has traditionally been performed.4 The most common forms of FGC still widely practised throughout Egypt are type I (commonly referred to as clitoridectomy) and type II (commonly referred to as excision).5 In Africa, the most common type of FGC is type II (excision of the clitoris and the labia minor) which accounts for up to 80% of all cases.6 It is of note that there is no doctrinal basis for this practice in either the Islamic or Christian faiths.“ (Tag-Eldin, 2008)

 

·      The Guardian: Egypt's tougher penalties for FGM will have little impact, say rights groups, 1. September 2016
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/sep/01/egypts-tougher-penalties-for-fgm-will-have-little-impact-say-rights-groups

„Successful convictions of doctors or others found to be performing the procedure are extremely rare, despite it being illegal in Egypt since 2008. Raslan Fadl, the first doctor to be sentenced in Egypt, was recently found to have walked free after serving the minimum three-month sentence. The nature of the law allowed Fadl to negotiate with the family of 13-year-old Sohair al-Bata’a, who died after he performed FGM on her, to serve the lowest possible sentence. On Sunday, Egypt’s cabinet proposed an amendment to the law banning FGM, which would classify it as a crime rather than a misdemeanour. Practitioners could now receive up to 15 years in jail if a victim dies, while anyone who accompanies girls to be cut could face between one and three years in prison. ‚This new law won’t necessarily stop private reconciliation,‘ said lawyer Reda el Danbouki, who fought the Bata’a case. ‚If anything, it imposes a sentence on the families or whoever escorts the girl to the operation – the family will not want to say they took the girl to undergo FGM, or else they will face prison themselves.‘ It is common for deaths caused by FGM to be deliberately misreported by both practitioners and families, further obscuring the possibility of cracking down on those who carry it out. ‚Given that the new law is making the prison sentence up to three years for the family, it will make the family more keen to lie about the nature of the operation,‘ Danbouki continued. ‚If the family say that the girl was taken to have another kind of operation, which she died from, it will then be classified as involuntary manslaughter – meaning there is room for reconciliation.‘ As such, campaigners say the new law would not have changed the outcome of the Bata’a case. Punishments for practitioners and families are often limited to cases where girls die after undergoing FGM, such as the forthcoming case of 17-year-old Mayar Mohamed Mousa in Suez. Mousa died from the procedure at a private hospital; the majority of FGM procedures are performed by medical professionals – 82% according to UNFPA.“ (The Guardian, 1. September 2016)

·      The Guardian: FGM doctor arrested in Egypt after girl, 12, bleeds to death, 3. Februar 2020
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/03/fgm-doctor-arrested-in-egypt-after-girl-12-bleeds-to-death

„A doctor has been arrested after the death of a 12-year-old girl he had performed female genital mutilation (FGM) on. Nada Hassan Abdel-Maqsoud bled to death at a private clinic in Manfalout, close to the city of Assiut, after her parents, uncle and aunt took her for the procedure. [...] ‘FGM continues to occur because there is no desire from the political leadership to stop it. The state is tolerant of female genital mutilation despite the presence of law, and despite receiving funds and grants from abroad [to combat it],‘ said Reda El Danbouki, a lawyer and campaigner against FGM. He said judges fail to apply the law because they ‚are affected by a culture which does not see FGM as a crime‘. He added: ‚The police and the officials carrying out investigations don’t care about domestic and sexual violence, including FGM.‘“ (The Guardian, 3. Februar 2020)

 

„In 2013, 13-year-old Sohair al-Bata’a died as a result of FGM. Raslan Fadl was the first doctor to be convicted of FGM, serving three months of his sentence in a case considered a watershed in convincing Egyptian lawmakers to criminalise the practice. Fadl was released after reconciling with the Bata’a family, a loophole in the law that campaigners say shields families and doctors from prosecution.“(The Guardian, 3. Februar 2020)

·      UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund: When health workers harm: the medicalization of female genital mutilation in Egypt, 2. Oktober 2019
https://www.unfpa.org/news/when-health-workers-harm-medicalization-female-genital-mutilation-egypt

„In Egypt, clitoridectomy and excision are most common forms of female genital mutilation. Both involve the removal of significant parts of the female anatomy.“ (UNFPA, 2. Oktober 2019)

·      UNICEF: Community mobilization towards the abandonment of FGM, 6. Februar 2019
https://www.unicef.org/egypt/stories/community-mobilization-towards-abandonment-fgm

„Asyut, Egypt – ‚I started with saving 11 girls in our family house from being cu‘”, said Nagwa Harbee, one of the volunteers to raise awareness against FGM in the village of Durunka in the governorate of Asyut. Now in her forties, Nagwa recently participated in an awareness session by Assiut Child and Development Association (ACDA) aiming at the sensitization of the public to promote social and behavioral change towards the abandonment of FGM. She was very moved by the stories she heard about girls who suffered from FGM and could relate to many of them as she herself has been cut when she was young. She decided to attend a training in the NGO, to learn more and talk to others. She started with her family members and, thanks to her persistence, all her daughters, nieces and cousins were saved.“ (UNICEF, 6. Februar 2019)

·      USDOS – US Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2016 - Egypt, 3. März 2017
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/1395254.html

„On May 28, 17-year-old Mayar Moussa died after undergoing an illegal FGM/C procedure at a hospital in Suez Governorate, prompting a critical public reaction. The Office of the Prosecutor General issued arrest warrants for seven suspects involved in the case, and in June authorities referred four of the seven to criminal court. On December 20, a Suez criminal court sentenced the doctor who performed the procedure to five years’ imprisonment and a fine of LE 50,000 ($2,750) and sentenced three others, including Moussa’s mother, to a one-year suspended sentence and a fine of LE 5,000 ($275). In July authorities arrested the doctor convicted of manslaughter in January 2015 after performing an illegal FGM/C procedure on 13-year-old Sohair el-Batea, who died as a result. He had initially avoided arrest and continued practicing medicine intermittently, despite his conviction and a court order that his clinic be closed. In November authorities announced they would charge the clinic with violating the closure order. The doctor and the girl’s father were the first individuals brought to trial since the 2008 law banned FGM/C.“ (USDOS, 3. März 2017)

·      USDOS – US Department of State: 2019 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Egypt, 11. März 2020
https://www.ecoi.net/de/dokument/2026355.html

„Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C): FGM/C is illegal, but it remained a serious problem. According to international and local observers, the government did not effectively enforce the FGM/C law. In May the government formed a national task force to end FGM/C, led by the NCW and the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood (NCCM). The latest research conducted by the National Population Council shows that the number of girls ages 13-17 subjected to the procedure dropped to 72 percent in 2018.“ (USDOS, 11. März 2020)

In July the “Protecting Her from FGM” campaign was launched by the National Commission for the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation and included a door-to-door campaign in all governorates to raise awareness among local communities about the harmful effects of FGM/C, in cooperation with the committees of child protection and rural leaders.“ (USDOS, 11. März 2020, Section 6)

„In July Dar al-Iftaa, responsible for issuing Islamic fatwas, said that female circumcision in its current form in Egypt is considered an attack on the body of women and therefore is prohibited and not permissible under Islamic law.

A 2016 amendment to the law designated FGM/C a felony, as opposed to a misdemeanor as it was previously, and assigned penalties for conviction of five to seven years’ imprisonment for practitioners who perform the procedure or 15 years if the practice led to death or ‚permanent deformity.‘ The law granted exceptions in cases of ‚medical necessity,‘ which rights groups and subject matter experts identified as a problematic loophole that allowed the practice to continue.“ (USDOS, 11. März 2020, Section 6) 

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