ecoi.net - European Country of Origin Information Network

GENERAL INFORMATION

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“Syria, with a population of approximately 21 million, is a republic under the authoritarian regime of President Bashar al-Asad. The president makes key decisions with counsel from a small circle of security advisors, ministers, and senior members of the ruling Ba'ath (Arab Socialist Renaissance) Party. The constitution mandates the primacy of Ba'ath Party leaders in state institutions and society. President Asad and party leaders dominate all three branches of government. In 2007 Asad was confirmed president for his second seven-year term in a ‘yes or no’ referendum that was neither free nor fair in the eyes of local and international human rights advocates. Security forces reported to civilian authorities.” (USDOS, 8 April 2011)

  

“Since 1963, Syria has been under a State of Emergency which gives the security services free reign in suppressing dissent.” (CRS, 3 June 2011, p. 19)

 

For background information on the political situation, see also: FH, May 2011

 

“Syria is one of several countries in the Middle East and North Africa to have been hit by a wave of pro-democracy protests following popular uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt that unseated long-standing autocratic rulers.” (BBC, 25 April 2011)

 

“Syria has long shared many of the socio-economic and political conditions that bred deep dissatisfaction with the status quo in other Arab autocracies, including high unemployment, high inflation, limited upward mobility, rampant corruption, lack of political freedoms, and repressive security forces. These factors fueled opposition to the Syrian government, […].” (CRS, 3 June 2011, p. 1)

 

“Over several weeks, cautious protests that began in marginalized regions developed into a countrywide uprising.” (HRC, 15 September 2011, p. 8)

 

“Though protests have occurred in Damascus (population 5.5 million) and Aleppo (population 5 million), Syria’s second largest city, they have not been on the same scale as elsewhere, perhaps reflecting some degree of popular support for the Asad regime.” (CRS, 3 June 2011, p. 5)

 

“Gunfire and explosions have rocked the suburbs of Damascus for a third consecutive day, as the country's conflict appeared to be moving closer to the capital and the base of President Bashar al-Assad's regime. […] By early on January 30, after two days of fighting in the Ghouta area on the eastern edge of Damascus, reports said Syrian security forces with tanks and other heavy weaponry appeared to have regained control of several neighborhoods.” (RFE/RL, 30 January 2012)

 

“The country is perilously close to civil war as the ranks of a rebel army swell with defecting soldiers and as government forces step up their assaults on towns and cities now that the Arab League monitoring mission has ended in failure.” (BBC, 30 January 2012)

 

Link to a map providing a situational overview on protests and violent clashes in the period between March and December 2011:

UNITAR/UNOSAT: Situation Map: Syria Uprising (as of 1 Dec 2011), 1 December 2011

 

“The UN estimates more than 9,000 people have been killed in a government crackdown on dissent during the past year.” (RFE/RL, 31 March 2012)

 

“[…] the UN says 230,000 Syrians have fled their homes in the past year. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees says 30,000 have fled abroad while 200,000 are displaced within Syria.” (BBC, 13 March 2012)

 

“Syria has barred most foreign journalists since the revolt began, making it hard to verify reports of events on the ground.” (AlertNet, 26 December 2011)

 

“Further, while Syrian authorities have issued more visas to foreign journalists, the authorities continue to restrict the movement of journalists within Syria and encumber their work.” (HRW, 20 January 2012)

   

   

KEY PLAYERS

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The majority of the protest movement is “apolitical, informed, frustrated, mostly between 20 and 40 and largely male. […] This cohort has been bolstered by a small but growing group of lawyers, artists and aid workers. […] In the last fortnight, members of the Damascus Declaration, a grouping of liberal and Islamist activists, have thrown their weight behind the protesters.” (Guardian, 15 April 2011)

 

“The opposition has crossed lines of religion, sect and ideology, but for the most part Christians reportedly fear the kind of regime that could replace al-Assad; the Druze are on the fence; while the Kurds support the uprising.” (IRIN, 28 September 2011)

 

“As the international community increasingly turns against al-Assad, analysts say a consistent proportion of Syrians have maintained a detached, if not hostile, position towards the ‘opposition’. Their reasons range from a desire for stability, regardless of its authoritarian enforcement, to the perception that elements of the opposition are inherently violent and radical. Ethnic minorities view the uprising through a survivalist lens, fostered by the narrative of the regime and some personal accounts. […] 

“The protesters have demanded an end to emergency laws and more freedoms. But they have also called for an end to abuses by the security services and the release of all political prisoners.” (Guardian, 16 April 2011)

 

“The spread of protests and growing demands – for dignity and reforms, then for the departure of the President – seemed to reflect the failure of a policy combining harsh repression with tardy political concessions.” (HRC, 15 September 2011, p. 8)

 

“Among demonstrators, the prospect of armed resistance is gaining appeal. […] Although still expensive, rudimentary weapons are now widely available due to intensive smuggling.” (ICG, 3 November 2011)

 

“Syrian opposition groups have grown increasingly organized as the uprising has unfolded, but remain divided over strategy and tactics.” (CRS, 9 November 2011, p. 3)

 

“The SNC [Syrian National Council], the largest and most representative Syrian opposition grouping, was founded in Istanbul at the end of August and numbers 140 members, half of them living in Syria.” (AFP, 19 October 2011)

 

“The Syrian National Council (SNC) was formally organized in Turkey in October 2011 and brings together a range of external activists, along with representatives of the Damascus Declaration Forces for National and Democratic Change, the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, and the Syrian Revolution General Commission (SRGC). The National Council has called for ‘immediate protection for civilians’, in contrast to some of its domestic counterparts. The Council also firmly believes that dialogue with the Asad government is impossible.” (CRS, 9 November 2011, p. 3-4)

 

“The National Co-ordination Committee (NCC), formed in September [2011], is made up of 13 left-leaning political parties, three Kurdish political parties, and independent political and youth activists. […] The NCC calls for dialogue conditional on the withdrawal of the military from the streets, the end of attacks on peaceful protesters by security forces, and the release of all political prisoners. The group is strongly opposed to any form of foreign intervention that would involve military measures, such as a no-fly zone, and would prefer economic sanctions and other diplomatic measures to increase pressure on President Assad.” (BBC, 1 March 2012)

 

“[…] the Free Syrian Army, formed in July [2011] and composed in part of defected army personnel, and others who have taken up arms with the stated intention of protecting their neighbourhoods.” (AI, 10 November 2011)

 

“The so-called ‘Free Syrian Army’ (FSA) is one of the main proponents of foreign military intervention in Syria. […] The FSA operates loosely across Syria with a base in a refugee camp in Turkey close to the Syrian border. The FSA claims to have some 15,000 men, however it is likely that this number is inflated and that the force does not exceed a fraction of that size.” (CSIS, 13 December 2011, p. 19-20)

 

 

“Both the armed forces and the security forces have been involved in the suppression of peaceful protests and related violations across the Syrian Arab Republic. The civilian police have also been deployed in urban areas for the purposes of crowd control. In addition, an Alawite civilian militia known as the Shabbiha participated in the commission of abuses against civilians. According to multiple accounts obtained by the mission, foreign fighters had been present and active during operations in several locations.” (HRC, 15 September 2011, p. 8)

 

“Syrian authorities repeatedly claimed that the violence in the country has been perpetrated by armed terrorist gangs, incited and sponsored from abroad.” (HRW, 15 December 2011, p. 3)

 

“Initially, in the face of the growing protests and international condemnation, President al-Assad announced a number of reforms while also maintaining the repression. In particular, he lifted the 48-year national state of emergency and abolished the notoriously unfair Supreme State Security Court that had been used to jail countless government critics and dissenters. He also issued several amnesties for different categories of prisoners, under which some prisoners of conscience were freed, and passed decrees to allow peaceful demonstrations under certain conditions and the legal registration of political parties other than the ruling Ba’ath party. But these reforms had no impact on the brutal crackdown, and contained elements indicating that they were merely cosmetic.” (AI, 9 January 2012, p. 27)

 

“Syrian officials on Sunday [10 July 2011] formally opened what they described as a national dialogue aimed at a transition to multiparty democracy, but the country’s opposition leaders boycotted the event, […].” (NYT, 10 July 2011)

 

“Syria on Monday [19 December 2011] pledged full cooperation with the Arab League after it finally agreed to allow an observer mission to monitor a deal to end nine months of bloodshed, […].” (AFP, 19 December 2011)

 

“Syria […] agreed on Wednesday [2 November 2011] to an Arab League plan to pull the army out of cities, free political prisoners and hold talks with the opposition.” (AlertNet, 3 November 2011)

 

“Attacks by security forces against peaceful protests have been reported every day since the Arab League mission began. […], authorities transferred hundreds of detainees to improvised holding centers at military sites in an apparent effort to hide them from the monitors.” (HRW, 6 January 2012)

 

“Syrians voted Sunday [26 February 2012] on a new constitution in the face of opposition calls for a boycott and further bloodshed as Washington warned of civil war and urged troops to disobey orders to shoot. […] The text of the new constitutions ends the legal basis for the five-decade stranglehold on power of the ruling Baath party but leaves huge powers in the hands of President Bashar al-Assad.” (AFP, 26 February 2012)

 

 

MAJOR EVENTS IN UNREST

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“Syrian activists have held daily protests in solidarity with Egyptian demonstrators since January 29.” (HRW, 3 February 2011)

 

“Limited calls in February 2011 to organize protests and gatherings failed but a violent government response to an isolated incident in the southern town of Dara’a in March [6 March] provided a decisive spark for the emergence of protest movements.” (CRS, 28 April 2011, p. 1)

 

“[…] it was the mukhabarat's torture of a group of Daraa school children who had scribbled graffiti criticizing President Bashar al-Assad that originally drove people to the streets.” (HRW, 4 May 2011)

 

“On March 15, some 40 people chanting political slogans marched in Damascus in what was said to be the first public protest against President Bashar al-Assad since popular uprisings began in the Arab world.” (RFE/RL, 16 March 2011)

 

“Some 200 members of Syria's ruling Baath party are reported to have resigned over the violent crackdown against pro-democracy demonstrations. The resignations were centred on the southern city of Deraa, a focal point of violence that has allegedly killed 450 people in six weeks. [...] The resignations follow those of 30 Baath officials from the restive coastal city of Baniyas, north-west of Damascus.” (BBC, 28 April 2011)

 

President al-Assad “has made vague promises of reform, while sending troops to crush protest centers one at a time. The latest focus of the military crackdown has been in the northwest of the country, around the town of Jisr al-Shughour where authorities say 120 security personnel were killed earlier this month.” (Reuters, 16 June 2011)

 

“Syrian forces backed by snipers and tanks stormed into the border town of Khirbet al-Jouz on Thursday [23 June], sending hundreds of refugees fleeing to Turkey from the informal camp where they had sought shelter from a violent crackdown on protests in the country’s rural northwest.” (NYT, 23 June 2011)

 

“At least 28 civilians were killed on Friday [15 July], including 16 in the capital Damascus […], as security forces opened fire to quell the largest anti-regime rallies in four months, activists said. More than one million Syrians turned out in just two cities – Hama and Deir Ezzor – to protest against the regime of President Bashar al-Assad and demand the release of hundreds of detainees seized in earlier pro-democracy rallies.” (AFP, 15 July 2011)

 

“Syrian security forces tightened their grip on the central city of Homs and its surroundings on Thursday [21 July] […], residents and activists said. […] The military campaign came five days after a wave of sectarian killings in the city that threatened to provoke wider sectarian conflict across the country.” (NYT, 21 July 2011)

 

“Syrian forces killed nearly 140 people on Sunday [31 July] including 100 when the army stormed the flashpoint protest city of Hama to crush dissent on the eve of Ramadan, activists said.” (AFP, 31 July 2011)

 

“The restive central city of Hama was quiet on Wednesday [10 August] after a week-long operation by the Syrian army that killed dozens of opposition activists. [...] In recent days large-scale operations by the Syrian army – notably in Hama and Deir al-Zour in the east – have drawn international condemnation.” (BBC, 10 August 2011)

 

“Since Sunday [14 August], more than 30 civilians have been killed in Latakia in a military offensive during which gunboats went into action for the first time since the start of pro-democracy revolts in mid-March, according to activists.” (AFP, 17 August 2011)

 

“Syrian protesters have taken to the streets in their thousands following Friday prayers [on 9 September], calling for international protection from the security forces. Some called for international observers to be sent in a monitoring role.” (BBC, 9 September 2011)

 

“Dozens of tanks and hundreds of soldiers stormed towns and villages near Syria's northwest border with Turkey on Wednesday [14 September] [...], local activists said. [...] In the northwest, the assault in Jabal al-Zawiya followed a major sweep this week on al-Ghab Plain, farmland to its south that has seen regular protests and serves as a supply line for army deserters.” (AlertNet, 14 September 2011)

 

“Syrian forces have killed at least twenty seven people in the last three days [since 27 September] in an offensive to recapture the town of Rastan that has come under the control of army deserters, an activist's body said on Thursday.The Local Coordination Committees said two of those killed were deserters and the rest were villagers in the central town, [...]:” (AlertNet, 29 September 2011)

 

“Syrian forces have regained control of the central town of Rastan after days of fighting with defectors who had joined protesters, state media say.” (BBC, 1 October 2011)

 

“Syrian military forces have resumed attacks in the city of Homs, activists say, despite agreeing to withdraw from urban areas under an Arab League deal.” (BBC, 4 November 2011)

 

“Syrian army defectors have attacked a string of military bases near Damascus, including an intelligence complex on the outskirts of the capital, […]. […] The attack appeared to mark an escalation in armed confrontations between government and opposition forces instead of clashes involving street protesters.” (Guardian, 16 November 2011)

 

“At least two rocket-propelled grenades have hit a ruling Ba'ath party building in Damascus, residents said, in the first insurgent attack reported inside the Syrian capital since the eight-month uprising began against President Bashar al-Assad. [...] The Free Syrian Army [...] claimed responsibility for the attack.” (Guardian, 20 November 2011)

 

“Almost 200 people have died in two days [19 and 20 December] of clashes in Syria, activists say, […]. […] all the activist groups reporting agree that there has been a surge in violence […], with particular concentrations of bloodshed in mountainous parts of Idlib province and the country's third city of Homs.” (BBC, 21 December 2011)

 

“At least 44 people have been killed and more than 150 injured in two suicide car bombings in the heart of Syria's capital, Damascus, officials say. State TV said suspected al-Qaeda militants had targeted two security service bases in the Kafr Sousa area. But the opposition said the attacks – which came a day after Arab League observers arrived – were staged by the government to justify its crackdown.” (BBC, 23 December 2011)

 

“An estimated 500,000 people are thought to have taken to the streets across the country, with the largest and most defiant protests taking place in areas where Arab League monitors were present. The touring members of the Arab League states could not stop the bloodshed, however, with opposition groups claiming up to 31 people were killed nationwide.” (Guardian, 31 December 2011)

 

 

“[…] a bomb in the capital, Damascus, killed at least 26 civilians and members of the security forces. Opposition groups have accused the government of planting the bomb to discredit their opponents and influence Arab League monitors. […] The Damascus blast happened at a busy junction in the Midan district of Damascus.” (BBC, 7 January 2012)

 

“Syrian forces have pulled back from a rebel-held town near Lebanon […]. President Bashar al-Assad's forces attacked Zabadani on Friday [13 January], after frequent demonstrations against his rule […]. It was the first big military assault since Arab monitors arrived in the country last month. Residents and opposition sources say insurgents managed to hold back the attacking troops until a ceasefire was reached on Tuesday [17 January].” (AlertNet, 19 January 2012)

 

“The Syrian army has regained control of some Damascus suburbs recently held by rebel forces, reports say. […] At least 26 people were reportedly killed this weekend [28 and 29 January] around Damascus in what activists say is the fiercest fighting around the capital during the 10 month-uprising. […] The latest army offensive started on Saturday [28 January] in suburbs where the Free Syrian Army had taken up positions - including Kfar Batna, Saqba, Jisreen, and Arbeen.” (BBC, 30 January 2012)

 

“At least 28 people have been killed and 235 wounded in two bombs targeting security compounds in Syria's second city of Aleppo, state media report. […] The rebel Free Syrian Army said it was operating in the area at the time, but was not responsible for the blasts.” (BBC, 10 February 2012)

 

HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS

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“The level and gravity of the human rights violations committed in Syria in 2011 signalled not just a dramatic deterioration in the human rights situation, but also amounted to crimes against humanity. The abuses were part of a widespread and systematic attack against civilians, carried out deliberately as state policy and in an organized manner.” (AI, 9 January 2012, p. 31)

 

“The sharp rise in the number of reported deaths in custody has been one of the most shocking features of the government’s bloody crackdown on the protests. No less than 88 such deaths have been reported to Amnesty International as occurring during the period from 1 April and 15 August 2011 […].”(AI, 31 August 2011, p. 4)

 

“At least 190 people, including children, died in custody.” (AI, 9 January 2012, p. 30)

 

“Syrian security forces forcibly removed 18 wounded people from al-Barr hospital in the central city of Homs on September 7, 2011, including five from the operating room, Human Rights Watch said today, based on reports from witnesses, including doctors. Security forces also prevented medical personnel from reaching the wounded in a number of the city’s neighborhoods on that day.” (HRW, 8 September 2011)

 

“People wounded in protests or other incidents related to the uprising have been verbally abused and physically assaulted in state-run hospitals, including by medical staff, and in some cases denied medical care […], and many of those taken to hospital have been detained. […] a number of health professionals have been detained, and in some cases tortured, for seeking to protect patients in their care. […] Wounded patients perceived as government opponents have been verbally and physically assaulted […] in at least four government-run hospitals […].” (AI, 25 October 2011, pp. 4-5, 7)

 

An activist network said “attending physicians are required to immediately notify security services of the arrival of a wounded person, regardless of the severity of his injuries, which invariably leads to the patient's arrest”. (AFP, 17 October 2011)

 

“Many Syrians abroad have been vocally expressing their solidarity with the mass pro-reform protests which have rocked Syria since March and to which the Syrian authorities have responded in a manner that Amnesty International has characterized as amounting to crimes against humanity. In so doing, they have found themselves systematically monitored and harassed by embassy officials and others believed to be acting on behalf of the Syrian regime and learnt that relatives in Syria have been exposed to intimidation and worse, apparently as a result.” (AI, 3 October 2011, p. 5)

 

For a report documenting summary executions, arbitrary arrests, enforced disappearances, torture and children’s rights violations from March 2011 to mid-November 2011, see: HRC, 23 November 2011

 

“Syrian army and security officers have detained and tortured children with impunity during the past year, Human Rights Watch said today. Human Rights Watch has documented at least 12 cases of children detained under inhumane conditions and tortured, as well as children shot while in their homes or on the street. Human Rights Watch has also documented government use of schools as detention centers, military bases or barracks, and sniper posts, as well as the arrest of children from schools.” (HRW, 3 February 2012)

 

  

INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES

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“The US, the EU and the Arab League have imposed economic sanctions on Syria […]” (Guardian, 14 December 2011)

 

“The EU has imposed a travel ban and an assets freeze on 13 Syrian officials, including one of Assad's brothers, and an embargo on the export of weapons to Syria.” (RFE/RL, 11 May 2011)

 

“[…] the EU has expanded sanctions against the Assad government. It added three members of Iran's Revolutionary Guard and four Syrians to a list of more than 30 people targeted.” (BBC, 24 June 2011)

 

“European governments are pushing for more comprehensive measures, and this week banned purchases of Syrian oil by EU states. [...] When EU ministers met in Poland on September 2 to agree the new sanctions, they also expanded the number of entities subject to asset freezes and EU travel bans by seven, including four people.” (IWPR, 2 September 2011)

 

“The European Union today [23 September 2011] agreed a fresh round of sanctions on Syria. [...] They include a ban on investment in the Syrian oil industry and a ban on delivering bank notes to the Syrian Central Bank.” (RFE/RL, 23 September 2011)

 

“In Brussels, the European Union decided to freeze the assets of the Commercial Bank of Syria, in a new set of sanctions over the regime's brutal crackdown on protesters, diplomats said.” (AFP, 14 October 2011)

 

“[…] on November 14, the European Union announced it was adding 18 Syrian officials to a list of people targeted with a travel ban and asset freeze in connection with the violence. This brings to 74 the number of Syrians affected by EU sanctions.” (RFE/RL, 15 November 2011)

 

“On Feb. 27 the EU agreed more sanctions including prohibiting trade in gold and other precious metals with Syrian state institutions and a ban on cargo flights from Syria. The Central Bank is targeted as well as other individuals including cabinet ministers. The EU also imposed sanctions on seven Syrian cabinet ministers including the Health Minister for his role in denying aid to protesters. Other ministers on the list for supporting the oppression are the telecoms, transport, education and oil and industry ministers.” (AlertNet, 28 February 2012)

“The new sanctions announced by Mr Obama included a freeze on all assets of the Syrian government subject to US jurisdiction and a ban on US residents from carrying out any transactions with the Syrian government or blacklisted individuals.” (BBC, 18 August 2011)

 

“The U.S. Treasury Department has imposed sanctions on three senior Syrian government officials for their roles in fostering violence against the country's citizens during a year of antigovernment protests. The measure prohibits U.S. citizens from engaging in transactions with Syrian Minister of Defense Dawood Rajiha, Deputy Chief of Staff of the Army Munir Adanov, or the head of presidential security team, Zuhayr Shalish. All assets the men hold in the United States also have been frozen.” (RFE/RL, 31 March 2012)

 

“Turkey, following the lead of Arab states, imposed sanctions on the regime of President Bashar al-Assad, banning all transactions with the Damascus government and central bank and freezing all Syrian state assets in Turkey. [...] On Sunday [27 November 2011] the Arab League [...] announced sweeping sanctions against Syria [...].” (AFP, 30 November 2011)

 

“Syria has been suspended from the Arab League over its failure to end […] government crackdowns on pro-democracy protests […].” (Guardian, 12 November 2011)

 

“The Arab League observers have been in Syria since late December to monitor compliance with a peace plan […].”(BBC, 7 January 2012)

 

“[…] opposition activists […] fear the mission could end up cloaking Damascus in respectability, whitewashing President Bashar al-Assad's record.” (AlertNet, 28 December 2011)

 

“Opposition activists say Syrian authorities are breaking their promises to withdraw troops from the streets of strife-torn towns, contradicting statements by Arab League peace monitors that government forces have pulled back.” (AlertNet, 5 January 2012)

 

“The Arab League suspended its monitoring mission in Syria because of worsening violence [...]. The Arab League mission was sent to observe Syria's implementation of a League peace plan, which failed to end the fighting. The mission was further undermined when Gulf states withdrew their monitors last week, saying the team could not stop the violence [...].” (AlertNet, 28 January 2012)

 

“Having encouraged similar protest movements in Egypt and Bahrain, Iran - long a strategic ally of Damascus - has declared the unrest in Syria part of a foreign conspiracy to weaken its resistance to Israel.” (BBC, 14 April 2011)

 

“On 10 January [2012], a Russian cargo ship loaded with containers from the country's main arms exporter made an unscheduled stop at the port of Limassol in Cyprus, apparently forced from the sea by bad weather. […] This was just the latest consignment of arms and ammunition sent by Russia in support of the Assad government, a close ally with whom Moscow has maintained good relations for decades. […] The last time a [UN] resolution was tabled, back in October last year [2011], both Russia and China vetoed it fearing it could ultimately lead to foreign military intervention in a re-run of the diplomatic manoeuvring ahead of the Nato bombing campaign in Libya. […] Moscow's long-standing position is that both the government and opposition in Syria are equally to blame for the violence and that the solution lies in bringing the two sides together for talks.” (BBC, 30 January 2012)

 

“A resolution urging the Syrian government to end all human rights violations and cooperate with the UN commission of inquiry and the Arab League observer mission was approved by 13 council members, including India, South Africa, and Pakistan, before being vetoed [by Russia and China].” (HRW, 4 February 2012)

   

 

SOURCES: (all links accessed 11 April 2012)

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