11.03.2008 - Source: US Department of State

Minorities constituted 13.9 percent of the NPC ("Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2007") [ID 23369]

"Minorities constituted 13.9 percent of the NPC, although they made up approximately 8.4 percent of the population. All of the country's 55 officially recognized minority groups were represented in the NPC membership. The 17th Communist Party Congress elected 40 members of ethnic minority groups as members or alternates on the Central Committee. The only ministerial-level post held by an ethnic minority was the Ethnic Affairs post, and there was one ethnic minority, Vice Premier Hui Liangyu, on the Politburo. Minorities held few senior party or government positions of significant influence."

Document(s): Open document

10.10.2007 - Source: Congressional-Executive Commission on China

Government represses aspects of ethnic minority rights deemed to challenge state authority ("Annual Report 2007") [ID 21403]

"The Chinese government recognizes and supports some aspects of ethnic minority identity, but represses aspects of ethnic minority rights deemed to challenge state authority, especially in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR), and Tibet Autonomous Region and other Tibetan autonomous areas. Overall conditions vary for members of the 55 groups the Chinese government designates as minority ``nationalities'' or ``ethnicities'' (minzu), but all communities face state controls in such spheres as governance, language use, culture, and religion. In recent years, the state has further refined its legal and economic systems for ethnic minorities, whom official statistics place at almost 8.5 percent of China's total population. The government provides some protections in law and in practice for ethnic minority rights and allows for autonomous governments in regions with ethnic minority populations. The narrow parameters of the ethnic autonomy system and the overriding dominance of the Communist Party, however, prevent ethnic minorities from enjoying their rights in line with international human rights standards."

Document(s): Open document

06.03.2007 - Source: US Department of State

Majority Han culture often discriminates against minorities ("Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2006") [ID 19165]

"According to the 2000 census, the population of the country's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities totaled 106.4 million, or 8.4 percent of the total population. Additionally some citizens identified themselves as members of unrecognized ethnic minorities. Most minority groups resided in areas they traditionally inhabited. Government policy provides members of recognized minorities with preferential treatment in birth planning, university admission, access to loans, and employment. In May 2005 new regulations designed to enhance minority preferences in education became effective. Nonetheless, in practice the majority Han culture often discriminated against minorities. Most minorities in border regions were less educated, and job discrimination in favor of Han migrants remained a serious problem even in state-owned enterprises. In June the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps announced that it would recruit 840 employees from the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, designating nearly all of the job openings for Han Chinese. Racial discrimination was the source of deep resentment in some areas, such as Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, and Tibet. As part of the government's emphasis on building a "harmonious society," the government downplayed racism against minorities and tension among different ethnic groups. But even in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of Jilin Province, which the government recognized as the most "harmonious" ethnic area, there is a perceived ceiling in career advancement for ethnic Koreans.

Incomes in minority areas remained well below those in other parts of the country, particularly for minorities. Han Chinese benefited disproportionately from government programs and economic growth. Many development programs disrupted traditional living patterns of minority groups and included, in some cases, the forced relocation of persons (see section 2.d.).

The government's policy to encourage Han migration into minority areas resulted in significant increases in the population of Han Chinese in Xinjiang. According to 2005 statistics published by Xinjiang officials, nine million of Xinjiang's 19.6 million official residents were Uighur. Approximately 7.8 million Xinjiang residents were Han (40 percent of the total population), up from 300,000 Han in 1949 (6 percent of the total population). Significant numbers of Kazakhs, Hui, Kyrgyz, and other minorities also lived in Xinjiang. Official statistics underestimated the Han population because they did not count the tens of thousands of Han Chinese who were long-term "temporary workers." The migration of ethnic Han into Xinjiang in recent decades caused the Han-Uighur ratio in the capital of Urumqi to shift from 20 to 80 to 80 to 20 and was a source of Uighur resentment. According to 2005 figures, non-Tibetan residents of the TAR comprised 5.9 percent of the population, but that figure did not include a large number of long-term Han Chinese "temporary" residents. Their presence also caused resentment among some Tibetans (see Tibet Addendum).

Minorities constituted 14 percent of the NPC, which was higher than their percentage in the population. According to a 1999 government report, 2.7 million minority officials served in the government. A Xinhua report claimed that more than 25 percent of Inner Mongolia's cadres were ethnic minorities, even though ethnic minorities constituted only 21 percent out of the region's population of 23.79 million. A government report stated that ethnic minority representation in the NPC was 62.7 percent in Xinjiang, 68.2 percent in Tibet, 58.8 percent in Guangxi, 59.8 percent in Ningxia, and 40.7 percent in Inner Mongolia.

Nonetheless, Han officials held the most powerful party and government positions in minority autonomous regions, particularly Xinjiang. In April 2005 the government announced that 500 of 700 new government jobs in Southern Xinjiang would be reserved for Han Chinese. In September 2005 the Xinjiang Daily announced that 947 Han cadres were being sent to areas where ethnic unrest had occurred. Han Chinese also held a majority of positions in security services, including special border brigades and new counterterrorism brigades that had some police powers.

The government continued moving away from the two-track school systems that used either standard Chinese or the local minority language and toward a new system that required schools to teach both standard Chinese and local minority languages or to teach standard Chinese only. Prior to adopting the new policy, the vast majority of Uighur children in Xinjiang attended Uighur language schools and generally received an hour's Chinese-language instruction per day. Graduates of minority language schools typically needed intensive Chinese study before they could handle Chinese-language course work at a university. The dominant position of standard Chinese in government, commerce, and academia put graduates of minority-language schools who lacked standard Chinese proficiency at a disadvantage. Koranic education was tightly controlled and use of Arabic in public schools is forbidden (see section 2.c.). During the year the government allocated an additional $15 million (RMB 120 million) to build new schools and support technical training for minority students who drop out before high school."

Document(s): Open document

02.2007 - Source: Minority Rights Group International

Minorities live under conditions of heightened repression and sharp restrictions on their civil and political freedoms ("Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions") [ID 21150]

"Violations of civil and political rights form a larger pattern of human rights abuse by the Chinese government. Such violations are often more extreme in the minority context, given the increased level of sensitivity that the government ascribes to matters regarding nationalism, separatism, and state unity. This is exacerbated by the Party’s tendency to label the expression of cultural or religious identity or concerns as political issues of ‘separatism’. As a result, minorities, especially in the IMAR, TAR, and XUAR, live under conditions of heightened repression and sharp restrictions on their civil and political freedoms, which further undermine their ability to participate in the political arena."

Document(s): Open document

02.2007 - Source: Minority Rights Group International

Minorities comprise a significant portion of China’s list of political prisoners ("Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions") [ID 21151]

"Minority activists in China are closely monitored by the public security and the state security bureaux. Further, minorities comprise a significant portion of China’s list of political prisoners. According to the Political Prisoners Database of the US Congressional-Executive Commissioner on China (CECC), there are 2,085 ethnic minority political prisoners out of a total of 2,279 cases in the database; 449 are ethnic women, mostly Tibetan nuns.95 Many are sentenced to years in prison for defending their political and civil rights as guaranteed by law under the PRC Constitution."

Document(s): Open document

02.2007 - Source: Minority Rights Group International

Poor access to health care facilities in minority areas due to disadvantaged geographical location and poverty ("Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions") [ID 21153]

"In 2003, the central government appropriated special funds totaling 1.37 billion yuan (US$ 165 million) for health services in the five autonomous regions, including IMAR, TAR and XUAR, which covered public health, basic rural health facilities, specialized hospitals, rural cooperative medical services and control of serious diseases. However, the issue of poor access to health care facilities in minority areas continues due to their disadvantaged geographical location and poverty. For instance, the long distance between villages and the nearest hospital or health care facilities effectively prevents rural minorities from getting medical treatment. In addition, nearly all public hospitals in China require an initial cash deposit when seeking medical treatment. It is widely reported that poor minorities fail to get medical treatment because they cannot afford the medical expenses. Compounded by increased privatization and high fees, inadequate preventative care programmes and the resulting spread of infectious diseases including HIV/AIDS, there is now a growing health crisis in China’s minority areas."

Document(s): Open document

02.2007 - Source: Minority Rights Group International

Higher infant and maternal mortality rates in ethnic areas; HIV/AIDS in minority areas ("Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions") [ID 21154]

"Minorities’ poor access to medical care is indicated by higher infant and maternal mortality rates in ethnic areas. Official statistics show that the national under-fives mortality rate is reported at 39.7 deaths per 1,000 births in 2000, compared to 57.2 per 1,000 in the TAR, 35.6 per 1,000 in the IMAR, and 65.4 per 1,000 in XUAR. One interviewee described the prohibitive costs of medical treatment:
‘It’s a problem, and unless you are rich and can pay the amount up front, you have to take a loan [from a family member or acquaintance], sometimes you have to pay your whole life for the debt.’
High medical fees contribute to the noticeably higher maternal mortality rates in minority areas. While the national maternal mortality rate dropped from 61.9 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1995 to 53 per 100,000 in 2000, the maternal morality rate in the TAR, IMAR and XUAR stood at 466.3, 62.6 and 161.4 per 100,000 respectively. The figures show that although the maternal mortality rate in Tibet dropped to 310.4 per 100,000 in 2004, it is still nearly six times the national average, which is reported at 48.3 per 100,000. The geographical inaccessibility to health care services also complicates the flow of information about prevention and control of HIV/AIDS in minority areas, in addition to access to treatment. According to Professor Jing Jun, Director of the HIV/AIDS Policy Research Centre at Qinghua University, although the number of ethnic minorities barely accounts for 10 per cent of the nation’s total population, ethnic minorities make up 36 per cent of all HIV-infected people in the PRC."

Document(s): Open document

02.2007 - Source: Minority Rights Group International

Unemployment much higher among minorities because various barriers, such as the widespread Mandarin fluency requirement ("Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions") [ID 21155]

"Unemployment is also much higher among minorities because various barriers, such as the widespread Mandarin fluency requirement, hinder the employment of minorities in China. Employment discrimination against minorities is further compounded by their lack of access to basic or advanced education, as described earlier. Additionally, Tibetans do not usually have connections with larger regional networks in the service or commerce industry, a factor critical to obtaining employment in Tibet today. Gender bias further compounds problems minority women face in finding and retaining employment."

Document(s): Open document

11.10.2005 - Source: Congressional-Executive Commission on China

Legal Framework For Minority Rights ("Annual Report 2005") [#37506],  [ID 4295]

see report for further details - chapter III(a)

"Minority rights protected under Chinese law may be roughly divided into seven categories: self-governance and representation, economic autonomy, educational autonomy, religious freedom, cultural expression, language use, and freedom from discrimination. Although the laws themselves contain provisions ensuring central control over minority areas,28 much of the discontent among minorities with central authority stems from uneven and incomplete implementation of the law rather than flaws in the legal framework itself. [...]"

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04.2005 - Source: UK Home Office

Country Report April 2005 - Ethnic Groups ("Country Report - April 2005") [#31975],  [ID 4296]

"6.266 As reported by the BBC on special website Changing China (Modern Giant: Facts and Figures behind the changing face of China), “The Han Chinese make up over 92% of the population of China, which is also home to 55 other official ethnic groups. Most of the minority groups live in sparsely populated border areas. Beijing faces two separatist conflicts in the western region - the Tibetans in Tibet and the Uighur in Xinjiang.” [9b] (Ethnic issues)

6.267 According to Europa publications, Regional Studies: The Far East and Australasia (2005), non Han groups make up 8.5% of the population – the other 91.5% being Han Chinese. [1a) (p 200)

6.268 According to official news agency Xinhua, ethnic minorities make up 6.7% of the population with Han Chinese accounting for the remaining 93.3%.

6.269 The same source also stated:
“The minority nationalities inhabit 60 percent of the country’s total area, and they live mainly in the border regions. All nationalities in China are equal, as stipulated by the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China. They take part in the administration of state affairs as equals, irrespective of their numbers or the size of areas they inhabit. Every minority nationality is represented in the National People’s Congress, which is the highest organ of state power of the People’s Republic of China.” [12al]
[...]
6.271 As reported by the Asia news site Muzi news on 8 November 2004:
“Most minorities live in the border provinces of Yunnan, Tibet and Xinjiang, in China’s far west, though some groups like the Hui, have concentrations in several regions. In the hope of discouraging separatism, particularly in Xinjiang and Tibet, the government offers minorities preferential treatment, including allowing couples to have two or more children, education subsidies and preference in school enrolment.” [15ag]

6.272 As reported by the BBC on 4 November 2004, “These privileges, originally designed to ensure compliance with Chinese rule, also cause resentment among ordinary Han Chinese.” [9bm]"

Document(s): Open document

10.2003 - Source: UK Home Office

Ethnic minorities ("Country Report - October 2003") [#49232],  [ID 4297]

"6.215. There are 55 officially recognised ethnic minorities with the PRC. Making up a combined total of 8.1 per cent of the population. The other 91.9 per cent are Han Chinese. [1b.] Of the minorities, 15 have over a million people each, 13 over 100,000, 7 over 50,000 each and 20 have fewer than 50,000 people each. The largest / most significant groups are listed below. [16ae.]

6.216. Most minority groups live in areas they have traditionally inhabited, with standards of living often well below the national average. Ethnic minorities generally do not populate the south and east of China, but there are isolated pockets of minorities throughout these areas. Various minorities are affected by local prejudice, but government policy is non-discriminatory, except for special treatment in some areas (e.g. looser family planning controls) According to the authorities, there are 2.4 million minority cadres. Many members of minorities occupy local leadership slots, and a few have positions of influence at the national level. However, in most areas, ethnic minorities are shut out of positions of real political power, while a tight control over separatist activities is maintained. Opposition to Communist Party rule in minority regions is met with force and heightened security measures. [2b][6e][16af.]"

Document(s): Open document

09.04.2003 - Source: Freedom House

Freedom House: Minorities ("The world`s most repressive regimes 2003") [#12683],  [ID 4298]

"Muslims and other minorities face unofficial discrimination in access to jobs and other areas, and minorities credibly claim that the majority Han Chinese have reaped an outsize share of benefits from government programs and economic growth, according to the U.S. State Department report. China’s 55 ethnic minorities make up just under 9 percent of the population, according to 1995 government figures."

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31.03.2003 - Source: US Department of State

USDOS: Ethnic minorities account for 8.41 percent of the total population ("Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002") [#11836],  [ID 4299]

"According to the 2000 census, the total population of the country's 55 ethnic minorities was 106.43 million, or 8.41 percent of the total population. Most minority groups resided in areas they traditionally have inhabited. The Government's avowed policy on minorities calls for preferential treatment in marriage regulations, birth planning, university admission, and employment. However, in some areas, ethnic minorities, especially those living in urban areas, have been pressured to limit births to the lower number Han Chinese are allowed (see Section 1.f.). Programs have been established to provide low-interest loans, subsidies, and special development funds for minority areas. Nonetheless, in practice minorities faced discrimination. Most of the minorities in border regions were less educated than the national average, and job discrimination in favor of Han migrants remained a serious problem. Racial discrimination was the source of deep resentment on the part of minorities in some areas, such as Xinjiang and Tibet. The Government did not openly recognize racism against minorities or tension among different ethnic groups as problems. Ethnic Uighurs in Xinjiang did not have equal access to newly created construction jobs associated with development projects; Han workers were brought in from Sichuan and elsewhere to work, especially on technical projects such as oil and gas pipelines.

Government development policies have long been in place to improve minority living standards. However, real incomes in minority areas, especially for non-Han groups, remained well below those in other parts of the country, and the majority Han Chinese have benefited disproportionately from Government programs and economic growth. Many development programs have disrupted traditional living patterns of minority groups, including ethnic Tibetans and the Muslim Turkic majority of western Xinjiang. There was evidence that official poverty alleviation programs and major state projects, such as building dams and environmental/reforestation projects, included the forced evacuation of persons (see Section 2.d.)."

Document(s): Open document

31.03.2003 - Source: US Department of State

USDOS: Education in minority languages ("Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002") [#11836],  [ID 4300]

"In many areas with a significant population of minorities, there were two-track school systems using either Mandarin or the local minority language. Students can choose to attend schools in either system. Designed to protect and maintain minority cultures, this divided education system placed those graduating from minority schools at a disadvantage in competing for jobs in government and business, which required good Chinese-language skills. Graduates of these schools typically needed 1 year or more of intensive Chinese before they could handle course work at a Chinese-language university. The vast majority of Uighur children in Xinjiang attended Uighur-language schools, and generally received an hour's Chinese language instruction per day. Tuition at Chinese-language schools in Xinjiang was generally more costly and thus most Uighur children living in rural areas were unable to afford them."

Document(s): Open document

31.03.2003 - Source: US Department of State

USDOS: Political representation of ethnic minorities ("Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002") [#11836],  [ID 4301]

"The Communist Party has an avowed policy of boosting minority representation in the Government and the CCP, and minorities constituted 14 percent of the NPC, which was higher than their percentage in the population. A September 1999 government white paper reported that there were 2.7 million minority officials in the Government. Many members of minorities occupied local leadership positions, and a few held positions of influence in the local party apparatus or at the national level. However, in most areas, ethnic minorities were shut out of positions of real political and economic power, which fed resentment of Han officials holding the most powerful party positions in minority autonomous regions."

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