11.2005 - Source: UK Home Office

Country report of November 2005 ("Country Report - October 2005 (revised November 2005)") [#39234],  [ID 3527]

see chapter 4 on History

Document(s): Open document

10.2003 - Source: UK Home Office

China Country Report 2003 - History ("Country Report - October 2003") [#49232],  [ID 3528]

"Revolutionary China, 1949-66

4.1. The People's Republic of China was established on 1 October 1949 after a protracted and bitter civil war between the communist forces led by Mao Zedong and the nationalist forces led by Chiang Kai-shek. PRC is now one of the few remaining communist one party states left after the end of the Cold War.

4.2. In 1959, after the catastrophic failure of his 'Great Leap Forward' economic policies and previous pattern of rule, Chairman Mao relinquished the post of Head of State and was replaced by Liu Shaoqi. During the following three years, as many as 25 million (some say 40 million) people died as a result of famine, drought, floods, withdrawal of Soviet aid, and the policies of the 'Great Leap Forward'. Under Premier Zhou Enlai, who was acting in conjunction with Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping and others, the economy gradually recovered. However, the pattern of rule in China, through extensive social control and political campaigns and purges emphasising class struggle rather than the application of law was established.

The Cultural Revolution 1966-76

4.3. Chairman Mao, who had retained his positions within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1966. This mass movement to radicalise Chinese society created intense factional struggle within the CCP. Red Guards, who followed the fanatical 'cult of Mao' and were given an open hand to smash the "four olds" (old ideas, old customs, old culture, old habits), and were responsible for widespread anarchy and violence against the civilian population. Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping (General Secretary of the CCP) were disgraced and Mao had to turn to the army to restore order.

4.4. The years before Mao's death in 1976 were characterised by an increasingly intense struggle for succession within the CCP. Premier Zhou Enlai died in January 1976 and was replaced by Hua Guofeng. Deng Xiaoping, having been rehabilitated only a year earlier was again dismissed from his posts in the Central Committee. Mao died in September that year. His widow, Jiang Qing, and three associates ('the gang of four') tried unsuccessfully to seize power. Hua Guofeng succeeded Mao as CCP Chairman, and Deng Xiaoping was restored to his posts the following year.

4.5. Although the worst abuses of the Cultural Revolution had subsided by 1970 and are generally regarded as having ended with the death of Mao in 1976. This phase of China's history only officially ended when final judgement on the Cultural Revolution took place at the Sixth Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee in 1981. The Third Plenum in 1978 saw the beginning of the era of economic reform under Deng Xiaoping.

Economic Reform 1978-89

4.6. In 1978-79 a campaign for democratic reform and human rights, involving posters and demonstrations took off in Beijing. It became known as the Democracy Wall Movement. The Movement was encouraged initially by Deng Xiaoping as a means of putting pressure on his political opponents but when his aims were achieved he suppressed the Movement. In March 1979 Democracy Wall leading figure Wei Jingsheng was arrested and subsequently sentenced to 15 years imprisonment for "counter-revolutionary" crimes.

4.7. In September 1982 the CCP was reorganised and the post of Party Chairman abolished. The following year a purge of the Party was launched, aimed at removing the 'Maoists' who had risen to power during the Cultural Revolution and were opposed to the pragmatic 'open door' policies of Deng. China's new Constitution restored the office of Head of State and in June 1983 Li Xiannian became President of China. Later that year the Party launched a major operation to combat crime and a campaign against 'spiritual pollution', involving censorship to limit the effects of Western cultural influences.

4.8. Reorganisation of the CCP and the government, and a programme of social reform aimed at modernising the economy and developing China's external relations, continued through the mid-1980s. There was also a significant liberalisation in the arts and sciences, with the revival of the Hundred Flowers movement of the mid-1950s. Which had encouraged the development of intellectual debate. However, increasing demands for better living conditions met stiff resistance from hardline (elderly) elements in the leadership who were opposed to Deng's social reforms. In December 1986 student protesters took to the streets in provinces throughout China, initially protesting against corruption but quickly demanding increased democracy and better living conditions. Chinese leaders reacted with restrictive measures on rallies and protest marches, whatever the source of grievance and the dismissal from their posts of a number of prominent intellectuals. Hu Yaobang was forced to resign as CCP General Secretary in January 1987, having been accused of failing to stem the tide of 'Western bourgeois liberalisation'. His replacement was Zhao Ziyang.

4.9. At the 13th National Congress of the CCP in late 1987 it became clear that the 'reformist' faction within the leadership had prevailed. Deng retired from the Central Committee, but retained influential positions within the Party. In 1988 Li Peng replaced Zhao Ziyang as Premier and Yang Shangkun became President.

Tiananmen Square 1989

4.10. In April 1989, Hu Yaobang died. In the following days, thousands of students maintained a vigil in his honour, calling for an end to official corruption and protesting current social conditions. Although initiated by students, the protesters struck a chord with the general populace, including workers, government employees, workers and journalists. In May 1989, demonstrations calling for modernisation, democracy, free speech and the right to form trades unions filled the streets of Beijing.

4.11. On 13 May 1989, a group of up to 3,000 students began a hunger strike as a way of pressurising the Chinese leadership to open a dialogue to discuss the protesters' grievances. This in turn resulted in a huge demonstration of support for the hunger strikers. On 17 May 1989 an estimated one million Chinese gathered at Tiananmen and demonstrations spread to other major cities in China's provinces. Zhao Ziyang, who was considered to be relatively supportive of the call for reform, visited Tiananmen Square in an attempt to persuade the hunger strikers to call off their protest, and commended their "patriotic spirit". The following day Li Peng met students, accused them of bringing anarchy and ordered them to leave, without success.

4.12. Martial law was declared on 20 May 1989, by a leadership fearful of national chaos and its own loss of power. The declaration only drew further demonstrations in protest against its imposition, although the numbers at Tiananmen began to decline. On 4 June, troops of the People's Liberation Army in tanks and armoured personnel carriers attacked protesters on and around Tiananmen Square. At least a thousand civilians were reportedly killed in the military crackdown in Beijing and other major cities, despite the government's denial that anyone was killed in Tiananmen Square itself (most protesters and their defenders were killed in side streets, during round-ups and in initial detention).

Post -Tiananmen Square

4.13. The authorities reacted vigorously to the threat to the absolute power of the CCP represented by the 1989 demonstrations. Those identified as having "counter-revolutionary" tendencies were subject to a range of repressive tactics depending on their level of dissident activity. Hundreds were arrested or detained and there were a number of executions. Students, public servants, workers and military personnel were required to perform self-criticism; ideological education classes were reinstated, and social control was tightened.

4.14. Zhao Ziyang was dismissed from his posts (though he was not expelled from the CCP) and was placed under house arrest. To take his place as CCP General Secretary, Jiang Zemin was brought in from Shanghai, where he was credited with handling demonstrations better than had been the case in Beijing. Under Jiang Zemin, martial law was lifted in January 1990 and some of the pro-democracy detainees were released. The following years demonstrated the leadership's commitment to a 'socialist market economy' and its continued emphasis on the need for national stability under an all-powerful CCP.

Current Situation Overview

4.15. In March 2003, the new leadership of China, "the fourth generation", was announced. Hu Jintao took over as President from Jiang Zemin and Wen Jiabao took over the role of Premier from Zhu Rongji. Both are committed to the continuation of the policies of Deng-Jiang."

Document(s): Open document

10.2003 - Source: UK Home Office

Country Assessment - October 2003 - Chronology of Events after 1949 ("Country Report - October 2003") [#49232],  [ID 3529]

"Annex A: Chronology of Events after 1949
1949, 1 October: The founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) proclaimed by the leader of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong.

1950: Beginning of Land Reform, which by 1953 involved the appropriation and redistribution of 200m acres, and violent class struggle against landlords and wealthy peasants, also the beginning of Thought Reform for intellectuals.

1954: The first Constitution adopted.

1957

May-June: The Hundred Flowers movement. Intellectuals and students invited to constructively criticise the CCP.

8 June: Anti-Rightist campaign launched - crackdown on nearly 3m rightist elements, including many of who had spoken out during the Hundred Flowers movement.

1958: The Great Leap Forward launched.

1959-61: The "Three Bitter Years" of famine.

1966-76: The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution - rise of the Red Guards, the Cult of Mao, widespread violence and anarchy, persecution of millions. Deng Xiaoping and other officials purged.

1975: New Constitution adopted. Deng Xiaoping rehabilitated.

1976

8 January: Death of Premier Zhou Enlai.

April: Demonstrations in Tiananmen Square mourning Zhou Enlai violently dispersed. Deng Xiaoping again purged.

9 September: Death of Mao Zedong.

October: Arrest of Gang of Four. Control assumed by Hua Guofeng.

1977 July: Deng Xiaoping rehabilitated.

1978: China's third constitution introduced. Beginning of Democracy Wall movement, with large posters and demonstrations calling for reform and democracy. Third plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee marked the beginning of Deng's era, with repudiation of the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution and launch of economic reforms.

1979

29 March: Wei Jingsheng, a Democracy Wall leading figure, arrested and sentenced for "counter- revolutionary" crimes.

1 July: Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure Law adopted by the fifth National People's Congress.

6 December: Democracy Wall closed down.

1980: One-child policy announced. Economic reform initiated, expanding the role of market forces.

1982: Fourth Constitution promulgated.

1983: Launch of campaigns against crime, resulting in thousands of arrests and executions, against radical elements within the CCP, and against "spiritual pollution" ie. Western influences.

1986: Revival of the Hundred Flowers movement, followed by widespread student protests calling for increased democracy and better living conditions.

1987: Hu Yaobang, CCP General Secretary, forced to resign and replaced by Zhao Ziyang. Beginning of campaign against Western bourgeois liberalisation.

1989

15 April: Death of Hu Yaobang.

18 April: 4,000 students place a banner in Tiananmen Square commemorating Hu.

22 April: Amid spreading protests, 50,000 students occupy Tiananmen Square overnight for Hu's funeral. Up to 150,000 students march into Tiananmen Square.

13 May: Beginning of hunger strike in Tiananmen Square for several hundred students.

17 May: Protests spread to other cities, Zhao Ziyang unsuccessful in persuading students to leave Tiananmen Square. Hunger strikers now numbered 3,000. Mass marches in Beijing include one million citizens.

20 May: Martial law in Beijing announced.

3-4 June: Soldiers clash with demonstrators, killing hundreds and clearing Tiananmen Square. Arrests and detentions across the country number in the thousands.

24 June: Zhao Ziyang ousted and replaced by Jiang Zemin.

October: New regulations compelled legal registration of all social organisations; other regulations required prior approval of the Public Security Bureau of all assemblies, demonstrations and parades.

November: Resignation of Deng Xiaoping from his last government position: Chairman of Central Military Commission); replaced by Jiang Zemin.

1990

10 January: Martial law lifted in Beijing.

18 January: Release of 573 dissidents.

10 May: Release of 211 dissidents.

December: Beginning of trials for numerous prominent dissidents.

1992: Deng Xiaoping tour of southern areas, including the Special Economic Zones, calling for increase in the pace of economic growth and intensification of his reformist policies. 14th National Congress appointed new younger Politburo and Standing Committee, and appointed Jiang Zemin as President of the PRC.

1993: Launch of campaign against corruption within CCP, state bureaucracy and economic enterprises. Fourth constitution amended. Work also starts on the controversial Three Gorges Dam, scheduled for completion by the end of 2007.

1995: CCP leadership announced that ultimate Party authority passed to younger 21 member Politburo.

1996 April: Launch of 'Strike Hard' campaign against crime, resulting in hundreds of executions and life sentences.

1997

January: Criminal Procedure Law revised, including increased protections for detainees.

February: Death of Deng Xiaoping.

July: The UK hands of Hong Kong back to China; autonomy preserved by formation of the Special Administrative Region (SAR).

October: 15th Party Congress, at which Jiang Zemin outlined reform of the state owned enterprises and gave a clear signal that the leadership is addressing the issue seriously. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights signed.

1998

March: Jiang Zemin re-elected as President. Zhu Rongji became Premier.

April: Wang Dan paroled to USA.

May: Legco elections.

June: Clinton visit, televised live. Dissidents fail in attempt to register legitimate opposition party. Demonstration commemorating Tiananmen Square passes without obstruction in Hong Kong.

October: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights signed on eve of UK PM's visit.

1999

May: Nato forces mistakenly bombed Chinese embassy in Belgrade.

July: Tensions increased following Taiwan's demand for "state-to-state" relations.

22 July: Falun Gong banned

1 October 1999: National day marked 50 years of Communist rule. Proceeded by severe security measures - detentions and limits on movement.

2000

February 2000: Zhong Gong declared a cult and banned

25 April 2000: First anniversary of the Zhongnanhai protests; 100 protesters arrested in Beijing.

26 June 2000: period of increased protest by Falun Gong; 1,200 practitioners arrested in 1 week.

23 January 2001: The Beijing immolations - Falun Gong protesters set themselves on fire - and subsequent crackdown on Falun Gong.

2 April 2001: EP-3 Incident, Chinese “captures” a US spy plane after forcing it to land in Chinese airspace. The Pentagon suspects that military codes were compromised by the incident.

25 April 2001: Second anniversary of the Zhongnanhai protests; some public protest in Beijing; mainly protests outside PRC.

13 July 2001: Beijing awarded 2008 Olympic games.

21 September 2001 - first reports of actions taken against "terrorists" in China, in the wake of 11 September. Executions reported of Uighur separatists in Xinjiang province.

1 October 2001: National Day: no reported Falun Gong protests.

2002

February 2002: visit by US President George W. Bush.

5 March 2002: Falun Gong interrupt cable signal in ChangChun, broadcast pro-Falun Gong programmes for an hour.

13 March 2002: Police orders allegedly escalated to shoot Falun Gong protesters on sight.

February 2003: First cases of SARS emerge in Guangdong province.

March 2003: Hu Jintao and Wen Jiaboa elected President and Premier of PRC respectively.

24 April 2003: Beijing, Guangdong and Shanxi provinces as well as Hong Kong (SAR) all subject to World Health Organisation (WHO) travel warnings.

20 July 2003 Prime Minister, Tony Blair visits Beijing and Kong Kong (SAR).

23 July 2003: Chinese Ministry of Health reports no new cases of SARS or any new deaths from those already affected."

Document(s): Open document

09.04.2003 - Source: Freedom House

Freedom House: Historical Overview ("The world`s most repressive regimes 2003") [#12683],  [ID 3530]

"The CCP took power in 1949 under Mao Zedong after defeating the Koumintang, or Nationalists, in a civil war that began in the 1920s. Aiming to tighten the party’s grip on power, Mao led several brutal, mass mobilization campaigns that resulted in millions of deaths and politicized nearly every aspect of public life. Following Mao’s death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping emerged as China’s paramount leader. While maintaining the CCP’s absolute rule, Deng scaled back the party’s role in everyday life and launched China’s gradual transition from central planning to a market economy.
The party showed its intent to hold on to power at all costs with the June 1989 massacre of hundreds, if not thousands, of student protesters in and around Beijing’s Tiananmen Square. The Beijing demonstrations, along with similar student rallies in cities across China, protested official corruption and demanded democratic reforms. Following the crackdown, the CCP tapped Jiang, then the Shanghai mayor and party boss, to replace the relatively moderate Zhao Ziyang as party secretary-general. Jiang became state president in 1993 and was widely recognized as China’s new paramount leader following Deng’s death in 1997.

Against opposition from die-hard Marxists within the party, Jiang continued Deng’s policies of selling off state firms, encouraging private enterprise, and rolling back China’s “iron rice bowl” welfare system. He also oversaw China’s emergence from its pariah status following the Tiananmen Square massacre to become a more engaged player in world affairs, even as the government continuously faced foreign criticism over its appalling human rights record."

Document(s): Open document